1. Montgomery, Alabama. Ngày 1 tháng Mười Hai, năm 1955: For an excellent biography of Rosa Parks, see Douglas Brinkley, Rosa Parks: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2000). Most of the material in Quiet about Parks is drawn from this work.

A note about Parks: Some have questioned the singularity of her actions, pointing out that she’d had plenty of civil rights training before boarding that bus. While this is true, there’s no evidence, according to Brinkley, that Parks acted in a premeditated manner that evening, or even as an activist; she was simply being herself. More important for Quiet’s purposes, her personality did not prevent her from being powerful; on the contrary, it made her a natural at nonviolent resistance.

2. “Hai cực Bắc–Nam của tính cách”: Winifred Gallagher (quoting J. D. Higley), “How We Become What We Are,” The Atlantic Monthly, September 1994. (Higley was talking about boldness and inhibition, not extroversion and introversion per se, but the concepts overlap in many ways.)

3. Nó điều khiển việc chúng ta thực hiện thường xuyên đến đâu các hoạt động như tập thể thao: Robert M. Stelmack, “On Personality and Arousal: A Historical Perspective on Eysenck and Zuckerman,”; Marvin Zuckerman và Robert M. Stelmack, On the Psychobiology of Personality: Essays in Honor of Marvin Zuckerman (San Diego: Elsevier, 2004), trang 22. Caroline Davis, “Motivations to Exercise as a Function of Personality Characteristics, Age, and Gender,” Personality and Individual Differences 19, no. 2 (1995): trang 165–174.

4. ngoại tình: Daniel Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), trang 100. See also David P. Schmitt, “The Big Five Related to Risky Sexual Behaviour Across 10 World Regions: Differential Personality Associations of Sexual Promiscuity and Relationship Infidelity,” European Journal of Personality 18, no. 4 (2004): trang 301–319.

5. làm việc hiệu quả mà không cần ngủ: William D. S. Killgore, “The Trait of Introversion-Extraversion Predicts Vulnerability to Sleep Deprivation,” Journal of Sleep Research 16, no. 4 (2007): trang 354–363. Xem cả Daniel Taylor và Robert M. McFatter, “Cognitive Performance After Sleep Deprivation: Does Personality Make a Difference?” Personality and Individual Differences 34, no. 7 (2003): trang 1179– 1193; và Andrew Smith và Andrea Maben, “Effects of Sleep Deprivation, Lunch, and Personality on

Performance, Mood, and Cardiovascular Function,” Physiology and Behavior 54, no. 5 (1993): trang 967–972.

6. học từ những sai lầm trong quá khứ: Xem chương 7.

7. đặt những canh bạc lớn trên thị trường chứng khoán: Xem chương 7.

8. làm một nhà lãnh đạo giỏi: Xem chương 2.

9. đặt những câu hỏi như: “Nếu trong trường hợp đó thì mọi việc sẽ ra sao?”: Xem chương

3 và chương 7.

10. những chủ đề được nghiên cứu nhiều nhất: As of May 2, 2010, in the PSYCINFO database, there were 9,194 entries on “extraversion,” 6,111 on “introversion,” and 12,494 on the overlapping subject of “neuroticism.” There were fewer entries for the other “Big 5” personality traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. Similarly, as of June 14, 2010, a Google scholar search found about 64,700 articles on “extraversion,” 30,600 on “extroversion,” 55,900 on “introversion,” and 53,300 on “neuroticism.” The psychologist William Graziano, in an e-mail dated July 31, 2010, refers to introversion/extroversion as “the 300 lb. gorilla of personality, meaning that it is big and cannot be ignored easily.”

11. trong Kinh Thánh: Xem “A Note on Terminology.”

12. một số nhà nghiên cứu tâm lý tiến hóa: Xem chương 6.

13. một phần ba cho tới một phần hai dân số nước Mỹ là những người hướng nội: Rowan Bayne, in The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A Critical Review and Practical Guide (London: Chapman and Hall, 1995), 47, finds the incidence of introversion at 36 percent, which is in turn determined from Isabel Myers’s own study from 1985. A more recent study, published by the Center for Applications of Psychological Type Research Services in 1996, sampled 914,219 people and found that 49.3 percent were extroverts and 50.7 percent were introverts. See “Estimated Frequencies of the Types in the United States Population,” a brochure published by the Center for Application of Psychological Type (CAPT) in 1996 and 2003. That the percentage of introverts found by these studies rose from 36 percent to 50.7 percent doesn’t necessarily mean that there are now more introverts in the United States, according to CAPT. It may be “simply a reflection of the populations sampled and included.” In fact, a wholly separate survey, this one using the Eysenck Personality Inventory and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire rather than the Myers-Briggs test, indicates that extraversion scores have

increased over time (from 1966 to 1993) for both men and women: see Jean M. Twenge, “Birth Cohort Changes in Extraversion: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis, 1966–1993,” Personality and Individual Differences 30 (2001): 735–48.

14. Mỹ là một trong số những nước hướng ngoại nhất trên thế giới: This has been noted in two studies:

(1) Juri Allik and Robert R. McCrae, “Toward a Geography of Personality Traits: Patterns of Profiles Across 36 Cultures,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35 (2004): 13–28; and (2) Robert R. McCrae and Antonio Terracciano, “Personality Profiles of Cultures: Aggregate Personality Traits,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89:3 (2005): 407–25.

15. Người hay nói, ví dụ: William B. Swann Jr. and Peter J. Rentfrow, “Blirtatiousness: Cognitive, Behavioral, and Physiological Consequences of Rapid Responding,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 6 (2001): 1160–75.

16. Tốc độ nói cũng ảnh hưởng: Howard Giles and Richard L. Street Jr., “Communicator Characteristics and Behavior,” in M. L. Knapp and G. R. Miller, eds., Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), 103–61. (But note some good news for introverts: slow speech can be perceived as honest and benevolent, according to other studies.)

17. người nói lớn thường được đánh giá là thông minh hơn: Delroy L. Paulhus and Kathy L. Morgan, “Perceptions of Intelligence in Leaderless Groups: The Dynamic Effects of Shyness and Acquaintance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72, no. 3 (1997): 581–91.

18. một nghiên cứu không chính thức: Laurie Helgoe, Introvert Power: Why Your Inner Life Is Your Hidden Strength(Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2008), 3–4.

19. định luật vạn vật hấp dẫn: Gale E. Christianson, Isaac Newton (Oxford University Press, Lives and Legacies Series, 2005).

20. thuyết tương đối: Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 4, 12, 18, 2, 31, etc.

21. “The Second Coming” của W. B. Yeats: Michael Fitzgerald, The Genesis of Artistic Creativity: Asperger’s Syndrome and the Arts (London: Jessica Kingsley, 2005), 69. Xem cả Ira Progoff, Jung’s Psychology and Its Social Meaning (London: Routledge, 1999), 111–12.

22. các bản dạ khúc của Chopin: Tad Szulc, Chopin in Paris: The Life and Times of the Romantic Composer (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 69.

23. bộ tiểu thuyết “Đi tìm thời gian đã mất” của Proust: Alain de Botton, How Proust Can Change Your Life (New York: Vintage International), 1997.

24. Peter Pan: Lisa Chaney, Hide-and-Seek with Angels: A Life of J. M. Barrie (New York: St. Martin’s Press,

2005), 2.

25. các tiểu thuyết “Một chín tám tư” và “Trại súc vật” của Orwell: Fitzgerald, The Genesis of Artistic Creativity, 89.

26. Charlie Brown: David Michaelis, Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography (New York: Harper, 2007).

27. “Schindler’s List”, “E.T.”, và “Close Encounters of the Third Kind”: Joseph McBride, Steven Spielberg: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 57, 68.

28. Google: Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin, 2009), 32

29. Harry Potter: Interview of J. K. Rowling by Shelagh Rogers and Lauren McCormick, Canadian Broadcasting Corp., October 26, 2000.

30. “Cả E=mc2 lẫn ‘Thiên đường đã mất’ đều không”: Winifred Gallagher, I.D.: How Heredity and Experience Make You Who You Are (New York: Random House, 1996), 26.

31. phần lớn các giáo viên tin rằng: Charles Meisgeier et al., “Implications and Applications of Psychological Type to Educational Reform and Renewal,” Proceedings of the First Biennial International Conference on Education of the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, 1994), 263–71.

32. Carl Jung đã xuất bản một cuốn sách bom tấn: Carl G. Jung, Psychological Types (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971; originally published in German as Psychologische Typen [Zurich: Rascher Verlag, 1921]), see esp. 330–37.

33. phần lớn các trường đại học và các công ty, tập đoàn hàng đầu trên thế giới: E-mail to the author, dated July 9, 2010, from Leah L. Walling, director, Marketing Communications and Product Marketing, CPP, Inc.

34. người hướng nội và hướng ngoại cần những mức độ kích thích khác nhau … Rất nhiều người sợ nói chuyện phiếm: Xem PHẦN HAI: “BẢN CHẤT SINH HỌC CỦA BẠN, BẢN CHẤT THỰC SỰ CỦA BẠN?”

35. hướng nội không phải là một từ đồng nghĩa với ẩn dật hay khinh người.: Introversion is also very

different from Asperger’s syndrome, the autism spectrum disorder that involves difficulties with social

interactions such as reading facial expressions and body language. Introversion and Asperger’s both can involve feeling overwhelmed in social settings. But unlike people with Asperger’s, introverts often have strong social skills. Compared with the one third to one half of Americans who are introverts, only one in five thousand people has Asperger’s. See National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Asperger Syndrome Fact Sheet,

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/asperger/detail_asperger.htm.

36. người hướng nội vô cùng rõ rệt, E. M. Forster: Sunil Kumar, A Companion to E. M. Forster, vol. 1 (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 2007).

37. “tình yêu giữa người với người ở sắc thái tuyệt đối nhất của nó.”: E. M. Forster, Howards End (London: Edward Arnold, 1910).

38. Nhút nhát, rụt rè là nỗi sợ sự không chấp nhận của xã hội: Elaine N. Aron et al., “Adult Shyness: The Interaction of Temperamental Sensitivity and an Adverse Childhood Environment,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 181–97.

39. đôi lúc chúng giao nhau: Many articles address this question. See, for example, Stephen R. Briggs,

“Shyness: Introversion or Neuroticism?” Journal of Research in Personality 22, no. 3 (1988): 290–307.

40. “Một kẻ như thế chắc chắn sẽ chỉ có thể kết thúc mình trong một nhà thương điên”: William McGuire and R. F. C. Hall, C. G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977), 304.

41. Phần Lan là một quốc gia nổi tiếng hướng nội: Aino Sallinen-Kuparinen et al., Willingness to Communicate, Communication Apprehension, Introversion, and Self-Reported Communication Competence: Finnish and American Comparisons. Communication Research Reports, 8 (1991): 57.

42. Rất nhiều người hướng nội cũng “đặc biệt nhạy cảm”: Xem chương 6.

1. Thời gian: năm 1902… đã từng kìm chân chính ông trong quá khứ: Giles Kemp and Edward Claflin, Dale Carnegie: The Man Who Influenced Millions (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989). The 1902 date is an estimate based on the rough contours of Carnegie’s biography.

3. “Trong những ngày mà phòng tắm và đàn piano còn là những thứ vô cùng xa xỉ”: Dale Carnegie, The Quick and Easy Way to Effective Speaking (New York: Pocket Books, 1962; revised by Dorothy Carnegie from Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business, by Dale Carnegie).

4. “Nền Văn Hóa Của Đức Tính” sang “Nền Văn Hóa Của Tính Cách”: Warren Susman, Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2003), 271–85. See also Ian A. M. Nicholson, “Gordon Allport, Character, and the ‘Culture of Personality,’ 1897–1937,” History of Psychology 1, no. 1 (1998): 52–68.

5. Thậm chí từ ngữ tính cách (personality) vẫn còn chưa tồn tại trong tiếng Anh cho đến tận thế kỷ thứ 18: Susman, Culture as History, 277: The modern idea of personality emerged in the early twentieth century and came into its own only in the post–World War I period. By 1930, according to the early personality psychologist Gordon W. Allport, interest in personality had reached “astonishing proportions.” See also Sol Cohen, “The Mental Hygiene Movement, the Development of Personality and the School: The Medicalization of American Education,” History of Education Quarterly 32, no. 2 (1983), 123–49.

6. Vào năm 1790, chỉ có khoảng 3% … hơn một phần ba dân số toàn quốc đã là những cư dân thành thị: Alan Berger, The City: Urban Communities and Their Problems (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown Co., 1978). See also Warren Simpson Thompson et al., Population Trends in the United States (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1969).

7. “Tất cả chúng ta không thể đều sống hết ở thành phố”: David E. Shi, The Simple Life: Plain Living and High Thinking in American Culture (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 154.

8. “Lý do một người này được thăng chức hay một người khác bị xã hội tảng lờ và tẩy chay”: Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 209.

9. The Pilgrim’s Progress: John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). See also Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 99.

10. một con người vô cùng khiêm tốn … “không bao giờ bị vấy bẩn bởi uy quyền”: Amy Henderson, “Media and the Rise of Celebrity Culture,” Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 6 (Spring 1992).

11. Một cuốn sách khuyên bảo khá nổi tiếng xuất bản năm 1899: Orison Swett Marden, Character: The Grandest Thing in the World (1899; reprint, Kessinger Publishing, 2003), 13.

12. Nhưng đến năm 1920, những cuốn sách tự-giúp-đỡ-bản-thân nổi tiếng … “Đó là cách xây dựng

danh tiếng cho một nhân cách”: Susman, Culture as History, 271–85.

14. Tạp chí Success và cả tuần báo The Saturday Evening Post: Carl Elliott, Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 61.

15. một kỹ năng bí ẩn khác có tên “sức quyến rũ”: Susman, 279.

16. “Những người đi ngang qua ngoài phố”: Hazel Rawson Cades, “A Twelve-to-Twenty Talk,” Women’s

Home Companion, September 1925: 71 (cited by Haiken, p. 91).

17. hết thảy người dân Mỹ đều bị ám ảnh bởi những minh tinh màn bạc: In 1907 there were five thousand movie theaters in the United States; by 1914 there were 180,000 theaters and counting. The first films appeared in 1894, and though the identities of screen actors were originally kept secret by the film studios (in keeping with the ethos of a more private era), by 1910 the notion of a “movie star” was born. Between 1910 and 1915 the influential filmmaker D. W. Griffith made movies in which he juxtaposed close-ups of the stars with crowd scenes. His message was clear: here was the successful personality, standing out in all its glory against the undifferentiated nobodies of the world. Americans absorbed these messages enthusiastically. The vast majority of biographical profiles published in The Saturday Evening Post and Collier’s at the dawn of the twentieth century were about politicians, businessmen, and professionals. But by the 1920s and 1930s, most profiles were written about entertainers like Gloria Swanson and Charlie Chaplin. (See Susman and Henderson; See also Charles Musser, The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994], 81; and Daniel Czitrom, Media and the American Mind: From Morse to McLuhan [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982, p. 42].)

18. “Giấy mỏng vân lụa của Eaton’s Highland”: Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 11.

19. “Khắp nơi xung quanh, mọi người đều đang âm thầm đánh giá bạn”: Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies’ Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (Routledge, 1995), 209.

20. “Những ánh mắt vô cùng nghiêm khắc đang bủa vây lấy bạn ngay chính lúc này đây!”: Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 213.

21. “Đã bao giờ thử tự chào bán chính bạn cho chính bạn chưa?”: Marchand, 209.

22. “Hãy để gương mặt của bạn bộc lộ sự tự tin, chứ không phải lo lắng!”: Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 213.

23. “khát khao được hạnh phúc, được thành công, được chiến thắng”: This ad ran in Cosmopolitan, August 1921: 24.

24. “Tôi phải làm thế nào để có thể trở nên nổi tiếng hơn đây?”: Rita Barnard, The Great Depression and the Culture of Abundance: Kenneth Fearing, Nathanael West, and Mass Culture in the 1930s (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 188. See also Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 210.

25.– cả hai giới tính đều thể hiện phần nào sự kín đáo, dè dặt … có thể bị coi là “lạnh nhạt”: Patricia 26 A. McDaniel,Shrinking Violets and Caspar Milquetoasts: Shyness, Power, and Intimacy in the United States, 1950–1995(New York: New York University Press, 2003), 33–43.

26. Vào thập kỷ 1920, nhà tâm lý học có tầm ảnh hưởng … “Nền văn minh đương đại của chúng ta

… có vẻ đặt giá trị cao hơn vào những con người hùng hổ”: Nicholson, “Gordon Allport, Character, and the Culture of Personality, 1897–1937,” 52–68. See also Gordon Allport, “A Test for Ascendance- Submission,”Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology 23 (1928): 118–36. Allport, often referred to as a founding figure of personality psychology, published “Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement” in 1921, the same year Jung published Psychological Types. He began teaching his course “Personality: Its Psychological and Social Aspects” at Harvard University in 1924; it was probably the first course in personality ever taught in the United States.

27. Chính Jung … “khơi dậy rất nhiều ác cảm của xã hội với loại người này”: C. G. Jung, Psychological Types(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990; reprint of 1921 edition), 403–5.

28. Hội chứng IC, như nó sau này được biết đến rộng rãi … “miễn là bạn có đủ chất để chống lưng cho nó”: Haiken, 27 Venus Envy, 111–14.

29. bất chấp giọng điệu lạc quan của bài báo này … “Một tính cách lành mạnh cho mọi con em của chúng ta”: McDaniel, Shrinking Violets, 43–44.

30. Những bậc phụ huynh—hoàn toàn có ý tốt … đồng ý rằng: Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood

in History and Society: “Shyness,” http://www.faqs.org/childhood/Re-So/Shyness.html.

31. Một số còn ngăn cấm… để các em học được cách hòa nhập vào với: David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, reprinted by arrangement with Yale University Press, 1953), esp. 79–85 and 91. See also “The People: Freedom—New Style,” Time, September 27, 1954.

32. Những trẻ em hướng nội … “sự phát triển tính tình bất bình thường nào”: William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956; reprint, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 382, 384.

33. Tổng Giám Sự Hành Chính (provost) của đại học Harvard, Paul Buck: Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 185, 223.

34. “Chúng tôi gần như không có việc gì để dùng đến những loại người người hướng nội ‘siêu thông minh’”: Whyte, The Organization Man, 105.

35. Vị trưởng khoa này … “và sẽ đỡ hơn rất nhiều nếu họ có thể tạo một ấn tượng tốt”: Whyte, The Organization Man, 212.

36. “Cùng bán IBM”: Hank Whittemore, “IBM in Westchester—The Low Profile of the True Believers.” New York, May 22, 1972. The singing ended in the 1950s, according to this article. For the full words to “Selling IBM,” see http://www.digibarn.com/collections/songs/ibm-songs.

37. Những người còn lại trong biên chế nhân viên … quảng cáo in của Equanil nói rõ: Louis Menand,

“Head Case: Can Psychiatry Be a Science?” The New Yorker, March 1, 2010.

38. Vào những năm 1960, quảng cáo thuốc an thần Serentil: Elliott, Better Than Well, xv.

39. Hướng ngoại là thành tố có trong cả từng nhiễm sắc thể của mỗi chúng ta: Kenneth R. Olson, “Why Do Geographic Differences Exist in the Worldwide Distribution of Extraversion and Openness to Experience? The History of Human Emigration as an Explanation,” Individual Differences Research 5, no. 4 (2007): 275–88. See also Chuansheng Chen, “Population Migration and the Variation of Dopamine D4 Receptor (DRD4) Allele Frequencies Around the Globe,” Evolution and Human Behavior 20 (1999): 309–24.

40. đế chế La Mã, nơi có những người mà với họ hình phạt nặng nề nhất là bị trục xuất ra khỏi thành phố: Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990), 165.

41. Thậm chí cả những cuộc phục hưng Thiên Chúa giáo ở Mỹ, từ tận giai đoạn thời kỳ Đại Tỉnh Thức đầu tiên: Long before that silver-tongued Chautauqua speaker turned Dale Carnegie’s world upside down, religious revivals were taking place under huge tents all over the country. Chautauqua itself was inspired by these “Great Awakenings,” the first in the 1730s and 1740s, and the second in the early decades of the nineteenth century. The Christianity on offer in the Awakenings was new and theatrical; its leaders were sales-oriented, focused on packing followers under their great tents. Ministers’ reputations depended on how exuberant they were in speech and gesture.

The star system dominated Christianity long before the concept of movie stars even existed. The dominant evangelist of the First Great Awakening was a British showman named George Whitefield who drew standing-room-only crowds with his dramatic impersonations of biblical figures and unabashed weeping, shouting, and crying out. But where the First Great Awakening balanced drama with intellect and gave birth to universities like Princeton and Dartmouth, the Second Great Awakening was even more personality-driven; its leaders focused purely on drawing crowds. Believing, as many megachurch pastors do today, that too academic an approach would fail to pack tents, many evangelical leaders gave up on intellectual values altogether and embraced their roles as salesmen and entertainers. “My theology! I didn’t know I had any!” exclaimed the nineteenth-century evangelist D. L. Moody.

This kind of oratory affected not only styles of worship, but also people’s ideas of who Jesus was. A 1925 advertising executive named Bruce Fairchild Barton published a book called The Man Nobody Knows. It presented Jesus as a superstar sales guy who “forged twelve men from the bottom ranks of business into an organization that conquered the world.” This Jesus was no lamb; this was “the world’s greatest business executive” and “The Founder of Modern Business.” The notion of Jesus as a role model for business leadership fell on extraordinarily receptive ears. The Man Nobody Knowsbecame one of the best-selling nonfiction books of the twentieth century, according to Powell’s Books. See Adam S. McHugh, Introverts in the Church: Finding Our Place in an Extroverted Culture (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books, 2009), 23–25. See also Neal Gabler, Life: The Movie: How Entertainment Conquered Reality (New York: Vintage Books, 1998), 25–26.

42. những cư dân Mỹ bắt đầu ngưỡng mộ hành động: Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Vintage Books, 1962); see, for example, pp. 51 and 256–57.

43. chiến dịch tranh cử tổng thống năm 1828: Neal Gabler, Life: The Movie, 28.

44. John Quincy Adams, tình cờ: Steven J. Rubenzer et al., “Assessing the U.S. Presidents Using the Revised

NEO Personality Inventory,” Assessment 7, no. 4 (2000): 403–20.

45. “Sự tôn trọng mà chúng ta có dành cho những tính cách cá nhân”: Harold Stearns, America and the Young Intellectual(New York: George H. Duran Co., 1921).

46. “Thật kỳ lạ khi nghĩ về mức độ chú ý”: Henderson, “Media and the Rise of Celebrity Culture.”

47. đi lang thang như những đám mây trôi vô định: William Wordsworth, “I Wandered Lonely as a

Cloud,” 1802.

48. đắm mình trong sự tĩnh lặng của Walden Pond: Henry David Thoreau, Walden, 1854.

49. Số lượng những người Mỹ tự coi mình là nhút nhát, rụt rè: Bernardo Carducci and Philip G.

Zimbardo, “Are You Shy?” Psychology Today, November 1, 1995.

50. “Chứng rối loạn lo lắng xã hội” … một phần năm dân số: M. B. Stein, J. R. Walker, and D. R. Forde, “Setting Diagnostic Thresholds for Social Phobia: Considerations from a Community Survey of Social Anxiety,”American Journal of Psychiatry 151 (1994): 408–42.

51. Phiên bản mới nhất của cuốn Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV): American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV), 2000. See 300.23, “Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder)”: “The diagnosis is appropriate only if the avoidance, fear, or anxious anticipation of encountering the social or performance situation interferes significantly with the person’s daily routine, occupational functioning, or social life, or if the person is markedly distressed about having the phobia.… In feared social or performance situations, individuals with Social Phobia experience concerns about embarrassment and are afraid that others will judge them to be anxious, weak, ‘crazy,’ or stupid. They may fear public speaking because of concern that others will notice their trembling hands or voice or they may experience extreme anxiety when conversing with others because of fear that they will appear inarticulate.… The fear or avoidance must interfere significantly with the person’s normal routine, occupational or academic functioning, or social activities or relationships, or the person must experience marked distress about having the phobia. For example, a person who is afraid of speaking in public would not receive a diagnosis of Social Phobia if this activity is not routinely encountered on the job or in the classroom and the person is not particularly distressed about it.”

52. “Sẽ là không đủ… nếu bạn chỉ có thể ngồi bên bàn máy tính”: Daniel Goleman, Working with Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam, 2000), 32.

53. vẫn chiếm vị trí hàng đầu trong số các sách bán chạy nhất: See, for example, http://www.nationalpost.com/Business+Bestsellers/3927572/story.html.

54. “tất cả mọi nói chuyện đều là để bán hàng và tất cả mọi sự bán hàng đều phải qua nói chuyện”: Michael Erard, Um: Slips, Stumbles, and Verbal Blunders, and What They Mean (New York: Pantheon, 2007), 156.

55. với hơn 12.500 câu lạc bộ trải khắp 113 nước khác nhau trên thế giới: http://www.toastmasters.org/MainMenuCategories/WhatisToastmasters.aspx (accessed September

10, 2010).

56. Video quảng cáo cho website của Toastmasters:

http://www.toastmasters.org/DVDclips.aspx (accessed July 29, 2010). Click on “Welcome to

Toastmasters! The entire 15 minute story.

1. “Tôi là một con ngựa chỉ có thể mang một bộ yên cương”: Albert Einstein, in “Forum and Century,” vol. 84, pp. 193–94 (the thirteenth in the Forum series Living Philosophies, a collection of personal philosophies of famous people, published in 1931).

2. “5 tháng Ba, 1975”: The story of Stephen Wozniak throughout this chapter is drawn largely from his autobiography, iWoz (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006). The description of Woz as being the “nerd soul” of Apple comes from http://valleywag.gawker.com/220602/wozniak-jobs-design-role-overstated.

3. một loạt các nghiên cứu về bản chất của tính sáng tạo: Donald W. MacKinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent” (Walter Van Dyke Bingham Lecture given at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, April 11, 1962). See also MacKinnon, “Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential,” Presidential Address presented at Western Psychological Association, Portland, Oregon, April 1964.

4. Một trong những khám phá quan trọng nhất của họ: See, for example, (1) Gregory J. Feist, “A Meta- Analysis of Personality in Scientific and Artistic Creativity,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 2,

no. 4 (1998): 290–309; (2) Feist, “Autonomy and Independence,” Encyclopedia of Creativity, vol. 1 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1999), 157–63; and (3) Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention (New York: Harper Perennial, 1996), 65–68. There are some studies showing a correlation between extroversion and creativity, but in contrast to the studies by MacKinnon, Csikszentmihalyi, and Feist, which followed people whose careers had proven them to be exceptionally creative “in real life,” these tend to be studies of college students measuring subjects’ creativity in more casual ways, for example by analyzing their personal hobbies or by asking them to play creativity games like writing a story about a picture. It’s likely that extroverts would do better in high-arousal settings like these. It’s also possible, as the psychologist Uwe Wolfradt suggests, that the relationship between introversion and creativity is “discernable at a higher level of creativity only.” (Uwe Wolfradt, “Individual Differences in Creativity: Personality, Story Writing, and Hobbies,”European Journal of Personality 15, no. 4, [July/August 2001]: 297–310.)

5. Hans Eysenck: Hans J. Eysenck, Genius: The Natural History of Creativity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

6. “Sự sáng tạo—trái tim của một nền kinh tế tri thức”: Malcolm Gladwell, “Why Your Bosses Want to Turn Your New Office into Greenwich Village,” The New Yorker, December 11, 2000.

7. “Không ai trong chúng ta thông minh bằng tất cả chúng ta”: Warren Bennis, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration (New York: Basic Books, 1997).

8. “Michelangelo cũng phải có những phụ tá”: Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations (New York: Penguin, 2008).

9. họ càng lúc càng tổ chức nhân sự của mình thành những teams (đội, nhóm): Steve Koslowski and Daniel Ilgen, “Enhancing the Effectiveness of Work Groups and Teams,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 7, no. 3 (2006): 77–124.

10. Tới năm 2000, theo ước tính đã có: Dennis J. Devine, “Teams in Organizations: Prevalence, Characteristics, and Effectiveness,” Small Group Research 20 (1999): 678–711.

11. ngày nay gần như tất cả bọn họ đều làm thế: Frederick Morgeson et al., “Leadership in Teams: A Functional Approach to Understanding Leadership Structures and Processes,” Journal of Management 36, no. 1 (2010): 5–39.

12. 91% các quản lý cấp cao tin tưởng rằng: Ibid.

13. Chuyên viên tư vấn Stephen Harvill nói với tôi rằng: Author interview, October 26, 2010.

14. trên 70% nhân viên ngày nay: Davis, “The Physical Environment of the Office.” See also James C. McElroy and Paula C. Morrow, “Employee Reactions to Office Redesign: A Naturally Occurring Quasi- Field Experiment in a Multi-Generational Setting,” Human Relations 63, no. 5 (2010): 609–36. See also Davis, “The Physical Environment of the Office”: open-plan offices are “the most popular office design” today. See also Joyce Gannon, “Firms Betting Open-Office Design, Amenities Lead to Happier, More Productive Workers,” Post-Gazette (Pittsburgh), February 9, 2003. See also Stephen Beacham, Real Estate Weekly, July 6, 2005. The first company to use an open plan in a high-rise building was Owens Corning, in 1969. Today, many companies use them, including Proctor & Gamble, Ernst & Young, GlaxoSmithKline, Alcoa, and H. J. Heinz.http://www.owenscorning.com/acquainted/about/history/1960.asp. See also Matthew Davis et al., “The Physical Environment of the Office: Contemporary and Emerging Issues,” in G. P. Hodgkinson and J. K. Ford, eds., International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 26 (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011), 193–235: “… there was a ‘widespread introduction of open-plan and landscaped offices in North America in the 1960s and 1970s.’ ” But see Jennifer Ann McCusker, “Individuals and Open Space Office Design: The Relationship Between Personality and Satisfaction in an Open Space Work Environment,” dissertation, Organizational Studies, Alliant International University, April 12, 2002 (“the concept of open space design began in the mid 1960s with a group of German management consultants,” citing Karen A. Edelman, “Take Down the Walls,” Across the Board 34, no. 3 [1997]: 32–38).

15. Lượng diện tích dành cho một nhân viên đã giảm: Roger Vincent, “Office Walls Are Closing in on Corporate Workers,” Los Angeles Times, December 15, 2010.

16. “Đã có một bước chuyển từ ‘Tôi làm việc’ sang ‘Chúng Tôi làm việc’”: Paul B. Brown, “The Case for Design,” Fast Company, June 2005.

17. Đối thủ cạnh tranh với ông, hãng nội thất văn phòng Herman Miller, Inc.: “New Executive Office- scapes: Moving from Private Offices to Open Environments,” Herman Miller Inc., 2003.

18. Vào năm 2006, Trường Kinh Tế Ross trực thuộc Đại học Michigan: Dave Gershman, “Building Is ‘Heart and Soul’ of the Ross School of Business,” mlive.com, January 24, 2009. See also Kyle Swanson,

“Business School Offers Preview of New Home, Slated to Open Next Semester,” Michigan Daily, September 15, 2008.

19. Theo một bản điều tra toàn quốc tiến hành năm 2002: Christopher Barnes, “What Do Teachers Teach? A Survey of America’s Fourth and Eighth Grade Teachers,” conducted by the Center for Survey Research and Analysis, University of Connecticut, Civic Report no. 28, September 2002. See also Robert

E. Slavin, “Research on Cooperative Learning and Achievement: What We Know, What We Need to Know,”Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, no. 1 (1996): 43–69 (citing 1993 national survey findings that 79 percent of elementary school teachers and 62 percent of middle school teachers made sustained use of cooperative learning). Note that in “real life,” many teachers are simply throwing students into groups but not using “cooperative learning” per se, which involves a highly specific set of procedures, according to an e-mail sent to the author by Roger Johnson of the Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota.

20. “cách học ‘cộng tác’ ”: Bruce Williams, Cooperative Learning: A Standard for High Achievement(Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2004), 3–4.

21. Janet Farrall và Leonie Kronborg: Janet Farrall and Leonie Kronborg, “Leadership Development for the Gifted and Talented,” in Fusing Talent—Giftedness in Australian Schools, edited by M. McCann and F. Southern (Adelaide: The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers, 1996).

22. “Đằng nào thì các nhân viên bây giờ cũng đã bê cả cuộc đời của họ lên Facebook và Twitter rồi”: Radio interview with Kai Ryssdal, “Are Cubicles Going Extinct?”, Marketplace, from American Public Media, December 15, 2010.

23. Một lượng đặc biệt lớn những người yêu thích máy tính thời kỳ đầu tiên: Sarah Holmes and Philip

L. Kerr, “The IT Crowd: The Type Distribution in a Group of Information Technology Graduates,” Australian Psychological Type Review 9, no. 1 (2007): 31–38. See also Yair Amichai- Hamburger et al., “ ‘On the Internet No One Knows I’m an Introvert’: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Internet Interaction,”CyberPsychology and Behavior 5, no. 2 (2002): 125–28.

24. “Ai trong giới công nghệ cũng đều biết một lẽ hiển nhiên rằng mã nguồn mở thu hút những người hướng nội”: Dave W. Smith, e-mail to the author, October 20, 2010.

25. “Làm thế nào cậu bé đó, người tôi đã từng đánh bại trước đó rất dễ dàng”: See Daniel Coyle, The Talent Code (New York: Bantam Dell, 2009), 48.

26. ba nhóm người chơi violin chuyên nghiệp: K. Anders Ericsson et al., “The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance,” Psychological Review 100, no. 3 (1993): 363–406.

27. “Nghiêm túc tự học một mình”: Neil Charness et al., “The Role of Deliberate Practice in Chess Expertise,”Applied Cognitive Psychology 19 (2005): 151–65.

28. Các sinh viên đại học hay tự học một mình: David Glenn, “New Book Lays Failure to Learn on Colleges’ Doorsteps,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 18, 2001.

29. Thậm chí kể cả những vận động viên xuất sắc của các môn thể thao đồng đội: Starkes and Ericsson, “Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sports Expertise,” Human Kinetics (2003): 67–71.

30. Trong rất nhiều lĩnh vực, Ericsson nói với tôi: Interview with the author, April 13, 2010.

31. cần khoảng mười ngàn giờ Luyện Tập Có Chủ Đích: By the age of eighteen, the best violinists in the Berlin Music Academy study had spent an average of over 7,000 hours practicing alone, about 2,000 hours more than the good violinists, and 4,000 hours more than the music teachers.

32. “lòng ham thích tò mò và việc quá tập trung vào một sở thích có vẻ rất lạ với những người đồng trang lứa của họ”: Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity, 177.

33. “bởi việc tập chơi nhạc hay học toán”: Ibid., 65.

34. Madeleine L’Engle: Ibid., 253–54.

35. “Ngài Babbage kính mến”: Charles Darwin, The Correspondence of Charles Darwin Volume 2: 1837– 1843(Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 67.

36. Trò Chơi Cuộc chiến Lập Trình: These are described in Tom DeMarco and Timothy Lister, Peopleware: Productive Projects and Teams (New York: Dorset House, 1987).

37. Một khối lượng khổng lồ thông tin về các văn phòng mở: See, for example, the following: (1) Vinesh Oommen et al., “Should Health Service Managers Embrace Open Plan Work Environments? A Review,” Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management 3, no. 2 (2008). (2) Aoife Brennan et al., “Traditional Versus Open Office Design: A Longitudinal Field Study,” Environment and Behavior 34 (2002): 279. (3) James C McElroy and Paula Morrow, “Employee Reactions to Office Redesign: A Naturally Occurring Quasi-Field Experiment in a Multi-Generational Setting,” Human Relations 63 (2010): 609. (4) Einar De Croon et al., “The Effect of Office Concepts on Worker Health and

Performance: A Systematic Review of the Literature,” Ergonomics, 48, no. 2 (2005): 119–34. (5) J. Pejtersen et al., “Indoor Climate, Psychosocial Work Environment and Symptoms in Open-Plan Offices,” Indoor Air 16, no. 5 (2006): 392–401. (6) Herman Miller Research Summary, 2007, “It’s All About Me: The Benefits of Personal Control at Work.” (7) Paul Bell et al., Environmental Psychology(Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005), 162. (8) Davis, “The Physical Environment of the Office.”

38. con người có thể học tốt hơn sau khi đi dạo: Marc G. Berman et al., “The Cognitive Benefits of Interacting with Nature,” Psychological Science 19, no. 12 (2008): 1207–12. See also Stephen Kaplan and Marc Berman, “Directed Attention as a Common Resource for Executive Functioning and Self- Regulation,”Perspectives on Psychological Science 5, no. 1 (2010): 43–57.

39. Một nghiên cứu khác, lấy từ trên 38,000 lao động trí thức: Davis et al., “The Physical Environment of the Office.”

40. Kể cả khả năng multitask … cũng chỉ là một nhầm tưởng sai lầm: John Medina, Brain Rules (Seattle, WA: Pear Press, 2008), 87.

41. Backbone Entertainment: Mike Mika, interview with the author, July 12, 2006.

42. Reebok International: Kimberly Blanton, “Design It Yourself: Pleasing Offices Laid Out by the Workers Who Use Them Can Be a Big Advantage When Companies Compete for Talent,” Boston Globe, March 1, 2005.

43. Trong suốt mười năm, kể từ năm 2000: TEDx Midwest Talk, October 15, 2010. Also, e-mail to the author, November 5, 2010.

44. Kafka, ví dụ: Anthony Storr, Solitude: A Return to the Self (New York: Free Press, 2005), 103.

45. Thậm chí cả con người vui vẻ hơn Kafka rất nhiều có tên Theodor Geisel: Judith Morgan and Neil Morgan, Dr. Seuss and Mr. Geisel: A Biography (New York: DaCapo, 1996).

46. người làm quảng cáo huyền thoại Alex Osborn: Alex Osborn, Your Creative Power (W. Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1948).

47. group brainstorming không thực sự có hiệu quả: Marvin D. Dunnette et al., “The Effect of Group Participation on Brainstorming Effectiveness for Two Industrial Samples,” Journal of Applied Psychology 47, no. 1 (1963): 30–37.

48. khoảng bốn mươi thí nghiệm khác: See, for example, Paul A. Mongeau and Mary Claire Morr, “Reconsidering Brainstorming,” Group Facilitation 1, no. 1 (1999): 14. See also Karan Girotra et al., “Idea Generation and the Quality of the Best Idea,” Management Science 56, no. 4 (April 2010): 591– 605. (The highest level innovation comes from a hybrid process in which people brainstorm on their own before sharing ideas with colleagues.)

49. “những doanh nhân hẳn phải mất trí rồi”: Adrian Furnham, “The Brainstorming Myth,” Business Strategy Review 11, no. 4 (2000): 21–28.

50. brainstorm qua mạng Internet: Paul Mongeau and Mary Claire Morr, “Reconsidering Brainstorming.”

51. Điều tương tự cũng đúng với các nghiên cứu mang tính hàn lâm: Charlan Nemeth and Jack Goncalo, “Creative Collaborations from Afar: The Benefits of Independent Authors,” Creativity Research Journal 17, no. 1 (2005): 1–8.

52. tin rằng nhóm của họ làm việc tốt hơn nhiều: Keith Sawyer, Group Genius: The Creative Power of Collaboration (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 66.

53. nỗi sợ bị bẽ mặt ở nơi công cộng: Susan K. Opt and Donald A. Loffredo, “Rethinking Communication

Apprehension: A Myers-Briggs Perspective,” Journal of Psychology 134, no. 5 (2000): 556–70.

54. hai đội bóng rổ của NCAA: James C. Moore and Jody A. Brylinsky, “Spectator Effect on Team Performance in College Basketball,” Journal of Sport Behavior 16, no. 2 (1993): 77.

55. Nhà kinh tế học hành vi Dan Ariely: Dan Ariely, “What’s the Value of a Big Bonus?” New York Times, November 19, 2008.

56. Gregory Berns: The Solomon Asch and Gregory Berns experiments are described in Gregory Berns,Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2008), 59–81. See also Sandra Blakeslee, “What Other People Say May Change What You See,” New York Times, June 28, 2005. And see Gregory S. Berns et al., “Neurobiological Correlates of Social Conformity and Independence During Mental Rotation,” Biological Psychiatry 58 (2005): 245– 53.

57. hoạt động mạnh ở thùy hạnh nhân: In fact, in some iterations of the experiment, where the volunteers played with a group of computers rather than with a group of people, their amygdalae stayed quiet even when they disagreed with the computers. This suggests that people who don’t conform suffer not so much the fear of being wrong as the anxiety of being excluded from the group.

58. tương tác mặt-đối-mặt trực tiếp giúp gây dựng niềm tin: Belinda Luscombe, “Why E-Mail May Be Hurting Off-Line Relationships,” Time, June 22, 2010.

59. rằng dân số đông đúc có liên quan mật thiết đến mức độ sáng tạo: Jonah Lehrer, “How the City Hurts Your Brain,”Boston Globe, January 2, 2009.

60. tạo ra những văn phòng mở “linh hoạt”: Davis et al., “The Physical Environment of the Office.”

61. Tại Pixar Animation Studios Bill Capodagli, “Magic in the Workplace: How Pixar and Disney Unleash the Creative Talent of Their Workforce,” Effectif, September/October 2010: 43–45.

62. Tương tự, ở Microsoft: Michelle Conlin, “Microsoft’s Meet-My-Mood Offices,” Bloomberg Businessweek, September 10, 2007.

Một ghi chú chung về chương này: Chương 4 có đề cập đến các công trình của nhà tâm lý học Jerome Kagan về mức độ phản ứng cao (high reactivity). Một số nhà tâm lý học hiện đại sẽ cho rằng đây là một điểm giao nhau giữa tính hướng nội và một đặc điểm tính cách khác có tên “dễ hoảng loạn lo lắng” (neuroticism). Vì để đảm bảo mục đích dễ đọc, tôi đã không giải thích sự phân biệt này trong văn bản.

1. Ở một trong những nghiên cứu như vậy, bắt đầu từ năm 1989: This study is discussed at length in Jerome Kagan and Nancy Snidman, The Long Shadow of Temperament (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

2. “Lời miêu tả của Carl Jung về tính hướng nội và hướng ngoại”: Ibid., 218.

3. Tom, khép kín, và Ralph, hướng ngoại: Jerome Kagan, Galen’s Prophecy (New York: Basic Books, 1998), 158–61.

4. Một số người nói rằng tính khí là nền móng: See http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Warfield3.html.

5. một cơ quan rất quan trọng trong não bộ: Kagan and Snidman, The Long Shadow of Temperament, 10.

6. Khi cái đĩa bay đồ chơi kia trông có vẻ như nó đang lao thẳng vào giữa mặt bạn: This image comes from an online video with Joseph Ledoux, a scientist at NYU who studies the neural basis of emotions, especially fear and anxiety. See “Fearful Brain in an Anxious World,” Science & the City,http://www.nyas.org/Podcasts/Atom.axd (accessed November 20, 2008).

7. “sự chú tâm đề phòng”: “Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person”, tác giả: Elaine N. Aron, (New York: Routledge, 2010), trang 14.

8. Chúng thực sự chuyển động mắt nhiều hơn: Various studies have documented these tendencies in high-reactive children. See, for example, Jerome Kagan, “Reflection-Impulsivity and Reading Ability in Primary Grade Children,” Child Development 363, no. 3 (1965): 609–28. See also Ellen Siegelman, “Reflective and Impulsive Observing Behavior,” Child Development 40, no. 4 (1969): 1213–22. These studies use the term “reflective” rather than “high-reactive,” but it’s a safe bet that they’re talking about the same group of children. Siegelman describes them as “preferring low-risk situations generally but choosing harder, more solitary intellectual tasks … less motorically active, and more cautious” (p. 1214). (Similar studies have been done on adults; see chapters 6 and 7.)

9. Các trẻ em có mức độ phản ứng cao cũng đồng thời có xu hướng suy nghĩ và cảm xúc sâu sắc: Elaine Aron, The Highly Sensitive Child: Helping Our Children Thrive When the World Overwhelms Them (New York: Broadway Books), 2002.

10. Nếu một đứa bé có mức độ phản ứng cao vô tình làm hỏng đồ chơi của một đứa bé khác: See the studies by Grazyna Kochanska referred to in chapter 6.

11. một nhóm trẻ em nên chia sẻ một thứ đồ chơi mà ai cũng muốn như thế nào: Winifred Gallagher

(quoting Kagan), “How We Become What We Are.” The Atlantic Monthly, September 1994.

12. mắt xanh, hay bị dị ứng… gầy và có khuôn mặt dài hơn so với những người khác: Kagan, Galen’s

Prophecy, 160–61.

13. Cứ lấy các bộ phim của Disney làm ví dụ: Ibid., 161.

14. tính hướng nội và hướng ngoại có nền tảng sinh lý học: David G. Winter, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 511–16.

15. có khoảng 40 đến 50 phần trăm là do di truyền: Thomas J. Bouchard Jr. and Matt McGue, “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Human Psychological Differences,” Journal of Neurobiology 54 (2003): 4–5.

16. thuyết ưu sinh và thuyết Người da trắng thượng đẳng của Đức Quốc Xã: This has been written about in various places including, for example, Peter D. Kramer, Listening to Prozac (New York: Penguin, 1993), 150.

17. “Tôi đã bị lôi tuột đi, dẫu có gào thét hay đấm đá cũng vô ích, bởi chính những số liệu của tôi”:

Gallagher (quoting Kagan), “How We Become What We Are.”

18. Những phát hiện của ông về những trẻ em có mức độ phản ứng cao: Kramer, Listening to Prozac, 154.

19. Kagan đưa tôi vào văn phòng của ông bên trong Sảnh Đường William James: I conducted a series of interviews with Jerome Kagan between 2006 and 2010.

20. đã từng tự miêu tả bản thân khi còn nhỏ là một cậu bé luôn lo lắng: Jerome Kagan, An Argument for Mind (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 4, 7.

21. sợ nói trước đám đông là nỗi sợ số một ở Mỹ: Victoria Cunningham, Morty Lefkoe, and Lee Sechrest, “Eliminating Fears: An Intervention that Permanently Eliminates the Fear of Public Speaking,” Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 13 (2006): 183–93.

22. Hội chứng sợ phát biểu trước đông người có rất nhiều nguyên do: Gregory Berns, Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2008), 59–81.

23. những người hướng nội đặc biệt sợ nói trước đám đông hơn nhiều so với những người hướng ngoại.: Susan K. Opt and Donald A. Loffredo, “Rethinking Communication Apprehension: A Myers- Briggs Perspective,” Journal of Psychology 134, no. 5 (2000): 556–70. See also Michael J. Beatty, James

C. McCroskey, and Alan D. Heisel, “Communication Apprehension as Temperamental Expression: A Communibiological Paradigm,” Communication Monographs 65 (1998): 197–219. See also Peter D. Macintyre and Kimly A. Thivierge, “The Effects of Speaker Personality on Anticipated Reactions to Public Speaking,” Communication Research Reports 12, no. 2 (1995): 125–33.

24., trung bình khoảng một nửa trong số các lý do tạo nên sự đa dạng: David G. Winter, Personality, 512.

25. do nhiệt độ hay độ ẩm: Natasha Mitchell, “Jerome Kagan: The Father of Temperament,” radio

interview with Mitchell on ABC Radio International, August 26, 2006 (accessed at http://www.abc.net.au/rn/allinthemind/stories/2006/1722388.htm).

26. “leo qua hàng rào… nguy hiểm và phấn khích”: Gallagher (quoting Lykken), “How We Become What We Are.”

27. “Trường đại học luôn đầy những người hướng nội”: Interview with the author, June 15, 2006.

28. nếu được nuôi dưỡng bởi những gia đình quan tâm nhiều đến con cái… “các nhánh khác nhau trên cùng một cành cây tính cách”: Winifred Gallagher, I.D.: How Heredity and Experience Make You Who You Are (New York: Random House, 1996), 29, 46–50. See also Kagan and Snidman, The Long Shadow of Temperament, 5.

29. cơ chế để trẻ em đạt được cảm giác về sai-đúng của mình: Grazyna Kochanska and R. A. Thompson, “The Emergence and Development of Conscience in Toddlerhood and Early Childhood,” in Parenting and Children’s Internalization of Values, edited by J. E. Grusec and L. Kucynski (New York: John Wiley and Sons), 61. See also Grazyna Kochanska, “Toward a Synthesis of Parental Socialization and Child Temperament in Early Development of Conscience,” Child Development 64 no. 2 (1993): 325–47; Grazyna Kochanska and Nazan Aksan, “Children’s Conscience and Self-Regulation,” Journal of Personality 74, no. 6 (2006): 1587–1617; Grazyna Kochanska et al., “Guilt and Effortful Control: Two Mechanisms That Prevent Disruptive Developmental Trajectories,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97, no. 2 (2009): 322–33.

30. bi kịch của một tính cách táo bạo và tràn đầy năng lượng: Gallagher, I.D., 46–50.

31. mang tên “Lý Thuyết Hoa Phong Lan””: David Dobbs, “The Science of Success,” The Atlantic magazine, 2009. See also Jay Belsky et al., “Vulnerability Genes or Plasticity Genes?” Molecular Psychiatry, 2009: 1–9; Michael Pluess and Jay Belsky, “Differential Susceptibility to Rearing Experience: The Case of Childcare,” The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 50, no. 4 (2009): 396–404; Pluess and Belsky, “Differential Susceptibility to Rearing Experience: Parenting and Quality Child Care,” Developmental Psychology 46, no. 2 (2010): 379–90; Jay Belsky and Michael Pluess, “Beyond Diathesis Stress: Differential Susceptibility to Environmental Influences,” Psychological Bulletin 135, no. 6 (2009): 885–908; Bruce J. Ellis and W. Thomas Boyce, “Biological Sensitivity to Context,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 17, no. 3 (2008): 183–87.

32. trở nên tuyệt vọng, lo lắng, và sợ sệt: Aron, Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person, 3. See also

A. Engfer, “Antecedents and Consequences of Shyness in Boys and Girls: A 6-year Longitudinal Study,” in Social Withdrawal, Inhibition, and Shyness in Childhood, edited by K. H. Rubin and J. B. Asendorpf (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993), 49–79; W. T. Boyce et al., “Psychobiologic Reactivity to Stress and Childhood Respiratory Illnesses: Results of Two Prospective Studies,”Psychosomatic Medicine 57 (1995): 411–22; L. Gannon et al., “The Mediating Effects of Psychophysiological Reactivity and

Recovery on the Relationship Between Environmental Stress and Illness,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 33 (1989): 165–75.

33. Quả thực thế, một phần tư trong số những đứa trẻ có-mức-độ-phản-ứng-cao của Kagan: E-mail from Kagan to the author, June 22, 2010.

34. được dạy bảo tốt, được cha mẹ quan tâm, và có một môi trường gia đình ổn định: See, for example, Belsky et al., “Vulnerability Genes or Plasticity Genes?”, 5. See also Pluess and Belsky, “Differential Susceptibility to Rearing Experience: The Case of Childcare,” 397.

35. Chúng tốt bụng, tận tình và cẩn thận: Aron, The Highly Sensitive Child.

36. Chúng không nhất thiết sẽ trở thành những lớp trưởng, khối trưởng: Author interview with Jay Belsky, April 28, 2010.

37. thế giới của loài khỉ rhesus: Stephen J. Suomi, “Early Determinants of Behaviour: Evidence from Primate Studies,” British Medical Bulletin 53, no. 1 (1997): 170–84 (“high-reactive infants cross- fostered to nurturant females actually appeared to be behaviourally precocious.… These individuals became especially adept at recruiting and retaining other group members as allies in response to agonistic encounters and, perhaps as a consequence, they subsequently rose to and maintained top positions in the group’s dominance hierarchy.… Clearly, high-reactivity need not always be associated with adverse short- and long-term outcomes,” p. 180). See also this video on the Atlantic Monthlywebsite: (http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/12/the-science-of- success/7761/), in which Suomi tells us that “the monkeys who had that same short allele and grew up with good mothers had no problems whatsoever. They turned out as well or better than monkeys who had the other version of this gene.” (Note also that the link between the short allele of the SERT gene and depression in humans is well discussed but somewhat controversial.)

38. có liên kết với mức độ phản ứng cao và tính cách hướng nội: Seth J. Gillihan et al., “Association Between Serotonin Transporter Genotype and Extraversion,” Psychiatric Genetics 17, no. 6 (2007): 351–54. See also M. R. Munafo et al., “Genetic Polymorphisms and Personality in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Molecular Psychiatry 8 (2003): 471–84. And see Cecilie L. Licht et al., “Association Between Sensory Processing Sensitivity and the 5-HTTLPR Short/Short Genotype.”

39. suy đoán rằng những cá thể khỉ rhesus có-mức-độ-phản-ứng-cao này: Dobbs, “The Science of Success.”

40. cô gái vị thành niên với alen ngắn trong gen SERT… ít lo lắng hơn so với những người khác sau những ngày bình yên: Belsky et al., “Vulnerability Genes or Plasticity Genes?”

41. nhưng điều này chỉ tiếp tục đúng khi chúng lên năm tuổi: Elaine Aron, Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person, 240–41.

42. tốt hơn nhiều so với những đứa trẻ khác: Boyce, “Psychobiologic Reactivity to Stress and Childhood Respiratory Illnesses: Results of Two Prospective Studies.” See also W. Thomas Boyce and Bruce J. Ellis, “Biological Sensitivity to Context: I. Evolutionary-Developmental Theory of the Origins and Functions of Stress Reactivity,” Development and Psychopathology 27 (2005): 283.

43. Alen ngắn trong gen SERT cũng đồng thời: See Judith R. Homberg and Klaus-Peter Lesch, “Looking on the Bright Side of Serotonin Transporter Gene Variation,” Biological Psychiatry, 2010.

44. “những thủy thủ luôn quá bận rộn nhìn xuống dưới làn nước”: Belsky et al., “Vulnerability Genes or

Plasticity Genes?”

45. “Công sức và nỗ lực họ bỏ ra thực sự có thể tạo nên sự khác biệt”: Author interview with Jay Belsky, April 28, 2010.

1. “Sự thích thú xuất hiện ở chính biên giới”: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990), 52.

2. căn phòng không cửa sổ cùng Tiến sĩ Carl Schwartz: I conducted a series of interviews with Dr. Schwartz between 2006 and 2010.

3. dấu vết của tính cách có mức độ hướng ngoại cao hoặc thấp chưa bao giờ biến mất ở tuổi trưởng thành: Carl Schwartz et al., “Inhibited and Uninhibited Infants ‘Grown Up’: Adult Amygdalar Response to Novelty,” Science 300, no. 5627 (2003): 1952–53.

4. Nếu bạn từng là một đứa bé có-mức-độ-phản-ứng-cao: For a good overview of the relationship between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, see Joseph Ledoux, The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), chapters 6 and 8. See also Gregory Berns,Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2008), 59–81.

5. tự-nói-chuyện-với-bản-thân để định tâm lại trong những tình huống gây căng thẳng: Kevin N. Ochsner et al., “Rethinking Feelings: An fMRI Study of the Cognitive Regulation of Emotion,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14, no. 8 (2002): 1215–29.

6. các nhà khoa học đã sắp xếp để một con chuột: Ledoux, The Emotional Brain, 248–49.

7. Hans Eysenck: David C. Funder, The Personality Puzzle (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 280–83.

8. Hơn thế nữa, mức độ phấn khích cao trong não không phải lúc nào cũng: E-mail from Jerome Kagan to the author, June 23, 2010.

9. Và cũng có rất nhiều loại phấn khích nữa: E-mail from Carl Schwartz to the author, August 16, 2010. Also note that introverts seem not to be in a baseline state of high arousal so much as susceptible to tipping over into that state.

10. những người hâm mộ bóng đá cuồng nhiệt luôn thèm muốn sự phấn khích đến tột độ: E-mail from Jerome Kagan to the author, June 23, 2010.

11. người hướng nội đúng là có nhạy cảm hơn so với người hướng ngoại: This has been written about in many places. See, for example, Robert Stelmack, “On Personality and Arousal: A Historical Perspective on Eysenck and Zuckerman,” in On the Psychobiology of Personality: Essays in Honor of Marvin Zuckerman, edited by Marvin Zuckerman and Robert Stelmack (Pergamon, 2005), 17–28. See also Gerald Matthews et al.,Personality Traits (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 169–70, 186–89, 329–42. See also Randy J. Larsen and David M. Buss, Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature (New York: McGraw Hill, 2005), 202–6.

12. nước chanh: Funder, The Personality Puzzle, 281.

13. mức âm lượng được chọn bởi những người hướng ngoại: Russell G. Geen, “Preferred Stimulation Levels in Introverts and Extroverts: Effects on Arousal and Performance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46, no. 6 (1984): 1303–12.

14.. Họ có thể săn tìm những ngôi nhà dựa trên tính cách của các thành viên trong gia đình: This idea comes from Winifred Gallagher, House Thinking: A Room-by-Room Look at How We Live (New York: Harper Collins, 2006).

15. những người hướng nội hoạt động hiệu quả hơn người hướng ngoại khi thiếu ngủ: William Kilgore et al., “The Trait of Introversion-Extraversion Predicts Vulnerability to Sleep Deprivation,” Journal of Sleep Research 16, no. 4 (2007): 354–63.

16. Những người hướng ngoại ngái ngủ đằng sau vô-lăng: Matthews, Personality Traits, 337.

17. Sự quá-phấn-khích có thể làm ảnh hưởng tới khả năng tập trung: Gerald Matthews and Lisa Dorn, “Cognitive and Attentional Processes in Personality and Intelligence,” in International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, edited by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeidner (New York: Plenum Press, 1995): 367–96. Or, as the psychologist Brian Little puts it, “extraverts often find that they are able to handle cramming for speeches or briefings in a way that would be disastrous for introverts.”

18. sâu thêm vào trạng thái kinh sợ, khiếp hãi, và hổ thẹn: Berns, Iconoclast, 59–81.

1. “Một người đàn ông rụt rè, nhút nhát chắc chắn sẽ rất ghét”: Charles Darwin, The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2007), 259.

2. Buổi sáng Chủ Nhật ngày lễ Phục Sinh, 1939, tại Đài Tưởng Niệm Lincoln, Mỹ: My description of the concert is based on film footage of the event.

3. Và nó đã có thể sẽ không bao giờ tới, nếu không có Eleanor Roosevelt… hát tại Đài Tưởng Niệm Lincoln: Allida M. Black, Casting Her Own Shadow: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Shaping of Postwar Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 41–44.

4. “Có một thứ gì đó rất đặc biệt”: The American Experience: Eleanor Roosevelt (Public Broadcasting System, Ambrica Productions, 2000). See transcript: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eleanor/filmmore/

transcript/transcript1.html.

5. Họ gặp nhau khi ông mới hai mươi tuổi: Blanche Wiesen Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, Volume One: 1884– 1933(New York: Viking Penguin, 1992), esp. 125–236. See also The American Experience: Eleanor Roosevelt.

6. công trình khoa học đầu tiên của bà được xuất bản năm 1997: Elaine N. Aron and Arthur Aron, “Sensory-Processing Sensitivity and Its Relation to Introversion and Emotionality,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, no. 2 (1997): 345–68.

7. Khi còn là một cô bé… Bà quyết định phải tìm hiểu cho ra: The biographical information about Aron comes from (1) interview with the author, August 21, 2008; (2) Elaine N. Aron, The Highly Sensitive Person: How to Thrive When the World Overwhelms You (New York: Broadway Books, 1996); (3) Elaine

N. Aron,The Highly Sensitive Person in Love: Understanding and Managing Relationships When the World Overwhelms You (New York: Broadway Books, 2000).

8. Trước tiên Aron phỏng vấn ba mươi chín người… một bóng đèn điện hơi một chút quá sáng.: Aron and Aron, “Sensory-Processing Sensitivity.” See also E. N. Aron, “Revisiting Jung’s Concept of Innate Sensitiveness,” Journal of Analytical Psychology 49 (2004): 337–67. See also Aron, The Highly Sensitive Person.

9. Họ cảm giác những xúc cảm cực kỳ mạnh: In laboratory studies, looking at pictures designed to create strong positive or negative emotions, they reported feeling more emotionally aroused than nonsensitive people. See B. Acevedo, A. Aron, and E. Aron, “Sensory Processing Sensitivity and Neural Responses to Strangers’ Emotional States,” in A. Aron (Chair), High Sensitivity, a Personality/Temperament Trait: Lifting the Shadow of Psychopathology, symposium presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Diego, California, 2010. See also Jadzia Jagiellowicz, Arthur Aron, Elaine Aron, and Turhan Canli, “Faster and More Intense: Emotion Processing and Attentional Mechanisms in Individuals with Sensory Processing Sensitivity,” in Aron,High Sensitivity.

10. một nhóm các nhà khoa học tại Đại học Stony Brook: Jadzia Jagiellowicz et al., “Sensory Processing Sensitivity and Neural Responses to Changes in Visual Scenes,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2010, doi.10.1093/scan/nsq001.

11. vọng lại những khám phá của Kagan: Jerome Kagan, “Reflection-Impulsivity and Reading Ability in Primary Grade Children,” Child Development 363, no. 3 (1965): 609–28. See also Ellen Siegelman, “Reflective and Impulsive Observing Behavior,” Child Development 40, no. 4 (1969): 1213–22.

12. “Nếu bạn nghĩ theo những cách phức tạp hơn”: Interview with the author, May 8, 2010.

13. đặc biệt cảm thông: Aron and Aron, “Sensory-Processing Sensitivity.” See also Aron, “Revisiting Jung’s Concept of Innate Sensitiveness.” See also Aron, The Highly Sensitive Person. And see the following fMRI studies: Acevedo, “Sensory Processing Sensitivity and Neural Responses to Strangers’ Emotional States.” And see Jadzia Jagiellowicz, “Faster and More Intense: Emotion Processing and Attentional

Mechanisms in Individuals with Sensory Processing Sensitivity.” Note that many personality psychologists who subscribe to the “Big 5” theory of personality associate empathy not with sensitivity (a construct that is gaining attention, but is relatively less well known than the Big 5), but with a trait known as “Agreeableness” and even extroversion. Aron’s work does not challenge these associations, but expands them. One of the most valuable aspects of Aron’s work is how radically, and fruitfully, she reinterprets personality psychology.

14. những người có những gen di truyền thường được gắn với tính nhạy cảm và tính hướng nội: Seth J. Gillihan et al., “Association Between Serotonin Transporter Genotype and Extraversion,” Psychiatric Genetics 17, no. 6 (2007): 351–54. See also M. R. Munafo et al., “Genetic Polymorphisms and Personality in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Molecular Psychiatry 8 (2003): 471–84.

15. cho họ xem những bức ảnh về các khuôn mặt sứt sẹo: David C. Funder, The Personality Puzzle (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), citing A. R. Hariri et al., “Serotonin Transporter Genetic Variation and the Response of the Human Amygdala,” Science 297 (2002): 400–403.

16. những khuôn mặt người đang thể hiện những trạng thái cảm xúc mạnh mẽ: Acevedo, “Sensory Processing Sensitivity and Neural Responses to Strangers’ Emotional States.” See also Jadzia Jagiellowicz, “Faster and More Intense: Emotion Processing and Attentional Mechanisms in Individuals with Sensory Processing Sensitivity.”

17. Vào năm 1921, FDR mắc căn bệnh bại liệt … người dân Mỹ đang phải chịu đựng khổ sở ra sao.: Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, Volume One, 125–236. See also The American Experience: Eleanor Roosevelt.

18. Một người phụ nữ tốt bụng đưa một món đồ chơi cho một đứa bé… “mối quan hệ tốt với cha mẹ, thầy cô và bạn bè”: Grazyna Kochanska et al., “Guilt in Young Children: Development, Determinants, and Relations with a Broader System of Standards,” Child Development 73, no. 2 (March/April 2002): 461–82. See also Grazyna Kochanska and Nazan Aksan, “Children’s Conscience and Self- Regulation,”Journal of Personality 74, no. 6 (2006): 1587–1617. See also Grazyna Kochanska et al., “Guilt and Effortful Control: Two Mechanisms That Prevent Disruptive Developmental Trajectories,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97, no. 2 (2009): 322–33.

19. một nghiên cứu mà Đại học Michigan tiến hành năm 2010: S. H. Konrath et al., “Changes in

Dispositional Empathy in American College Students Over Time: A Meta-Analysis,” Personality and

Social Psychology Review, August 2010, e-publication ahead of print (accessed athttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20688954).

20. có liên hệ với sự thịnh hành của các phương tiện truyền thông xã hội: Pamela Paul, “From Students, Less Kindness for Strangers?” New York Times, June 25, 2010.

21. khi các bạn của cô bị trêu chọc: Elaine Aron, The Highly Sensitive Child (New York: Random House, 2002), 18, 282–83.

22. tiểu thuyết gia Eric Malpass: Eric Malpass, The Long Long Dances (London: Corgi, 1978).

23. Những người hướng nội có-mức-độ-phản-ứng-cao ra mồ hôi nhiều hơn: V. De Pascalis, “On the Psychophysiology of Extraversion,” inOn the Psychobiology of Personality: Essays in Honor of Marvin Zuckerman, edited by Marvin Zuckerman and Robert M. Stelmack (San Diego: Elsevier, 2004), 22. See also Randy J. Larsen and David M. Buss,Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005),199.

24. những kẻ điên rồ/sociopaths nằm ở điểm cực xa nhất trên thang đo mức độ “mát”/cool này: Van

K. Tharp et al., “Autonomic Activity During Anticipation of an Averse Tone in Noninstitutionalized Sociopaths,” Psychophysiology 17, no. 2 (1980): 123–28. See also Joseph Newman et al., “Validating a Distinction Between Primary and Secondary Psychopathy with Measures of Gray’s BIS and BAS Constructs,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114 (2005): 319–23.

25. những kẻ điên rồ/sociopaths là những kẻ có thùy hạnh nhân bị tổn thương: Yaling Yang et al., “Localization of Deformations Within the Amygdala in Individuals with Psychopathy,” Archives of General Psychiatry 66, no. 9 (2009), 986–94.

26. Máy phát hiện nói dối … thí nghiệm mức độ dẫn truyền của da: They also measure breathing, pulse rate, and blood pressure.

27. bởi mức nhịp tim “siêu cool” của ông trong khi cất cánh: Winifred Gallagher, I.D.: How Heredity and Experience Make You Who You Are (New York: Random House, 1996), 24.

28. Corine Dijk: Corine Dijk and Peter J. De Jong, “The Remedial Value of Blushing in the Context of Transgressions and Mishaps,” Emotion 9, no. 2 (2009): 287–91.

29. “Một cái đỏ mặt xuất hiện ngay trong hai hoặc ba giây”: Benedict Carey, “Hold Your Head Up: A

Blush Just Shows You Care,” New York Times, June 2, 2009: D5.

30. “Bởi vì không thể nào điều khiển việc đỏ mặt theo ý muốn được”: Ibid.

31. Keltner đã tìm kiếm nguồn gốc của cảm giác xấu hổ ở con người … vẫn còn tốt hơn là để tâm quá ít: Dacher Keltner, Born to Be Good: The Science of a Meaningful Life (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 74–96.

32. “Loại người ‘nhạy cảm’ hoặc ‘phản ứng’ … ‘cơ hội chỉ đến gõ cửa một lần thôi”: Elaine Aron,

“Revisiting Jung’s Concept of Innate Sensitiveness,” 337–67.

33. hai mươi bảy đặc điểm: Author interview with Elaine Aron, August 21, 2008.

34. khi 30 phần trăm còn lại là những người hướng ngoại: Aron, Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person, 5.

35. Hơn một trăm giống loài khác … những gì đang xảy ra xung quanh mình: Max Wolf et al., “Evolutionary Emergence of Responsive and Unresponsive Personalities,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 41 (2008): 15825–30. See also Aron, Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person, 2.

36. có nhóm của riêng chúng: David Sloan Wilson, Evolution for Everyone: How Darwin’s Theory Can

Change the Way We Think About Our Lives (New York: Bantam Dell, 2007), 110.

37. “quy luật bù-trừ” (trade-off theory) trong tiến hóa: Daniel Nettle, “The Evolution of Personality Variation in Humans and Other Animals,” American Psychologist 61, no. 6 (2006): 622–31.

38. Khi Wilson thả những chiếc bẫy bằng kim loại: Wilson, Evolution for Everyone, 100–114.

39. một loài động vật có tên Trinidadian guppy: Nettle, “The Evolution of Personality Variation in Humans and Other Animals,” 624. See also Shyril O’Steen et al., “Rapid Evolution of Escape Ability in Trinidadian Guppies,”Evolution 56, no. 4 (2002): 776–84. Note that another study found that bold fish do better with predators (but these were cichlids in fish tanks, not pike in streams): Brian R. Smith and Daniel T. Blumstein, “Behavioral Types as Predictors of Survival in Trinidadian Guppies,” Behavioral Ecology 21, no. 5 (2010): 65–73.

40. cộng đồng du canh du cư: Dan Eisenberg et al., “Dopamine Receptor Genetic Polymorphisms and Body Composition in Undernourished Pastoralists: An Exploration of Nutrition Indices Among Nomadic and Recently Settled Ariaal Men of Northern Kenya,” BMC Evolutionary Biology 8, no. 173 (2008),

doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-173. See also: http://machineslikeus.com/news/adhd-advantage-nomadic- tribesmen.

41. những con người hướng ngoại có nhiều bạn tình hơn … cũng có xu hướng phạm tội nhiều hơn. Nettle, “The Evolution of Personality Variation in Humans and Other Animals,” 625. See also Daniel Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

42. Như Jung đã suy đoán từ gần một thế kỷ trước đây: Carl Jung, Psychological Types, vol. 6 of The Collected Works of C. G. Jung (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 559.

43. những đặc điểm tính cách giúp nâng cao khả năng sinh tồn của cả tập thể: See, for example,

Nicholas Wade, “The Evolution of the God Gene,” New York Times, November 15, 2009.

44. “Hãy giả sử trong một đàn linh dương”: Elaine Aron, “Book Review: Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior,” January 2007, Comfort Zone Online: http://www.hsperson.com/pages/3Feb07.htm.

45. “những thành viên “diều hâu” và “bồ câu” của một giống loài: Elaine Aron, “A Future Headline: ‘HSPs, the Key to Human Survival?’ ” August 2007, Comfort Zone Online: http://www.hsperson.com/pages/1Aug07.htm.

46. Chim bạc má lớn (great tit birds): Nettle, “The Evolution of Personality Variation in Humans and Other Animals,” 624–25. See also Sloan Wilson, Evolution for Everyone, 110.

47. “Nếu bạn gửi một người hướng nội tới một buổi lễ hay một sự kiện”: David Remnick, “The Wilderness Campaign,” The New Yorker, September 13, 2004.

48. “Hầu hết mọi người trong giới chính trị”: John Heilemann, “The Comeback Kid,” New York magazine, May 21, 2006.

49. “Nó là về sự sống còn của cả hành tinh”: Benjamin Svetkey, “Changing the Climate,” Entertainment Weekly, July 14, 2006.

50. “nhóm “các vị vua chiến binh” và “những người quân sư giáo sĩ””: Aron, “Revisiting Jung’s Concept of Innate Sensitiveness.”

1. Chỉ vừa ngay sau thời điểm 7:30: Alan’s story and the description of Dorn and her house are based on a series of telephone and e-mail interviews with the author, conducted between 2008 and 2010.

2. Lịch sử ngành tài chính đầy ắp các ví dụ: There are also many examples from military history. “Hurrah, boys, we’ve got them!” General Custer famously shouted at the battle of Little Bighorn in 1876—just before his entire unit of two hundred men was wiped out by three thousand Sioux and Cheyenne. General MacArthur advanced in the face of repeated Chinese threats of attack during the Korean War, costing almost 2 million lives with little strategic gain. Stalin refused to believe that the Germans would invade Russia in 1941, even after ninety warnings of an impending attack. See Dominic

D. P. Johnson, Overconfidence and War: The Havoc and Glory of Positive Illusions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

3. Vụ sát nhập giữa AOL và Time Warner: Nina Monk, Fools Rush In: Steve Case, Jerry Levin, and the Unmaking of AOL Time-Warner (New York: HarperCollins, 2005).

4. Họ tự bảo vệ bản thân mình tốt hơn: The psychology professor Richard Howard, in an interview with the author on November 17, 2008, notes that introverts tend to down-regulate positive emotions and extroverts tend to up-regulate them.

5. hệ viền (limbic system) của chúng ta: Note that these days many scientists dislike the phrase “limbic system.” This is because no one really knows which parts of the brain this term refers to. The brain areas included in this system have changed over the years, and today many use the term to mean brain areas that have something to do with emotion. Still, it’s a useful shorthand.

6. “Không, không, không! Đừng có làm việc đó”: See, for example, Ahmad R. Hariri, Susan Y. Bookheimer, and John C. Mazziotta, “Modulating Emotional Responses: Effects of a Neocortical Network on the Limbic Systems,” NeuroReport 11 (1999): 43–48.

7. thứ khiến người hướng ngoại là người hướng ngoại: Richard E. Lucas and Ed Diener, “Cross- Cultural Evidence for the Fundamental Features of Extraversion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 3 (2000): 452–68. See also Michael D. Robinson et al., “Extraversion and Reward- Related Processing: Probing Incentive Motivation in Affective Priming Tasks,” Emotion 10, no. 5 (2010): 615–26.

8. Họ đã được chứng minh là có tham vọng kinh tế, chính trị, và khoái lạc chủ nghĩa (hedonistic) lớn hơn nhiều: Joshua Wilt and William Revelle, “Extraversion,” in Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior, edited by Mark R. Leary and Rich H. Hoyle (New York: Guilford Press, 2009), 39.

9. Chìa khóa có vẻ nằm ở cảm xúc tích cực: See Lucas and Diener, “Cross-Cultural Evidence for the Fundamental Features of Extraversion.” See also Daniel Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

10. Nền tảng cơ bản của sự “say sưa”: Richard Depue and Paul Collins, “Neurobiology of the Structure of Personality: Dopamine, Facilitation of Incentive Motivation, and Extraversion,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22, no. 3 (1999): 491–569. See also Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are.

11. Dopamine là “chất hóa học phần thưởng”: Depue and Collins, “Neurobiology of the Structure of Personality: Dopamine, Facilitation of Incentive Motivation, and Extraversion.” See also Nettle,Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are. See also Susan Lang, “Psychologist Finds Dopamine Linked to a Personality Trait and Happiness,” Cornell Chronicle 28, no. 10 (1996).

12. những khám phá bước đầu đã rất đáng kinh ngạc: Some of the findings in this line of research have been contradictory or have not been replicated, but together they pose an important avenue of inquiry.

13.. Trong một thí nghiệm, Richard Depue: Depue and Collins, “Neurobiology of the Structure of Personality: Dopamine, Facilitation of Incentive Motivation, and Extraversion.”

14. những người hướng ngoại thắng trong các trò cá cược: Michael X. Cohen et al., “Individual Differences in Extraversion and Dopamine Genetics Predict Neural Reward Responses,” Cognitive Brain Research 25 (2005): 851–61.

15. Một nghiên cứu khác nữa lại chỉ ra rằng phần medial orbitofrontal cortex: Colin G. DeYoung et al., “Testing Predictions from Personality Neuroscience: Brain Structure and the Big Five,” Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (2010): 820–28.

16. người hướng nội “có mức độ phản ứng thấp hơn” … “không phải gãy chân mới tới được chúng”: Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are.

17. “Điều này quả thực quá tuyệt vời!”: Michael J. Beatty et al., “Communication Apprehension as Temperamental Expression: A Communibiological Paradigm,” Communication Monographs 65 (1988):

reporting that people with high communication apprehension “value moderate … success less than do

those low in the trait.”

18. “Tất cả mọi người đều cho rằng ưu tiên hơn vào các cảm xúc tích cực là tốt”: Richard Howard interview with the author, November 17, 2008. Howard also pointed to this interesting take by Roy F. Baumeister et al., “How Emotions Facilitate and Impair Self-Regulation,” in Handbook of Emotion Regulation, edited by James J. Gross (New York: Guilford Press, 2009), 422: “positive emotion can sweep aside the normal restraints that promote civilized behavior.”

19. Một bất lợi khác của sự say sưa: Note that this sort of risk-taking behavior is in what Daniel Nettle (Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are, 83) calls “the shared territory” of extroversion and another personality trait, conscientiousness. In some cases conscientiousness is the better predictor.

20. chết bởi tai nạn giao thông khi đang lái xe … cho đến tái hôn: Nettle,Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are. See also Timo Lajunen, “Personality and Accident Liability: Are Extroversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism Related to Traffic and Occupational Fatalities?” Personality and Individual Differences 31, no. 8 (2001): 1365–73.

21. những người hướng ngoại là thường có xu hướng thái-quá-tin: Peter Schaefer, “Overconfidence and the Big Five,” Journal of Research in Personality 38, no. 5 (2004): 473–80.

22. chúng ta đã có thể làm tốt hơn với nhiều phụ nữ: See, for example, Sheelah Kolhatkar, “What if Women Ran Wall Street?” New York Magazine, March 21, 2010.

23. một dấu hiệu rõ rệt để nhận biết những người sẽ dám “chơi lớn” trên thị trường tài chính: Camelia M. Kuhnen and Joan Y. Chiao, “Genetic Determinants of Financial Risk Taking,” PLoS ONE 4(2): e4362. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004362 (2009). See also Anna Dreber et al., “The 7R Polymorphism in the Dopamine Receptor D4 Gene (DRD4) Is Associated with Financial Risk Taking in Men.” Evolution and Human Behavior 30, no. 2 (2009): 85–92.

24. Khi phải đối mặt với việc khả năng chiến thắng là rất thấp: J. P. Roiser et al., “The Effect of Polymorphism at the Serotonin Transporter Gene on Decision-making, Memory and Executive Function in Ecstasy Users and Controls,” Psychopharmacology 188 (2006): 213–27.

25. Một nghiên cứu khác, tiến hành trên sáu mươi tư nhà buôn khác nhau: Mark Fenton O’Creevy et al., Traders: Risks, Decisions, and Management in Financial Markets (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 142–43.

26. trì hoãn phần thưởng tức thời để hướng đến món lợi lâu dài, một kỹ năng sống quan trọng,: Jonah Lehrer, “Don’t,” The New Yorker, May 18, 2009. See also Jacob B. Hirsh et al., “Positive Mood Effects on Delay Discounting,” Emotion 10, no. 5 (2010): 717–21. See also David Brooks, The Social Animal (New York: Random House, 2011), 124.

27. Ở một nghiên cứu, các nhà khoa học cho các tình nguyện viên được lựa chọn: Samuel McClure et al., “Separate Neural Systems Value Immediate and Delayed Monetary Rewards,” Science 306 (2004): 503–7.

28. Một nghiên cứu tương tự cũng gợi ý rằng: Hirsch, “Positive Mood Effects on Delay Discounting.”

29. Ấy vậy nhưng chính những cách tính toán sai lầm: Wall Street’s judgment was clouded by a strange brew of (1) lemming-like behavior, (2) the opportunity to earn large transaction fees, (3) the fear of losing market share to competitors, and (4) the inability to properly balance opportunity against risk.

30. Quá nhiều quyền lực được tập trung vào tay những người thích-mạo-hiểm hung hăng: Interview with the author, March 5, 2009.

31. “Trong hai mươi năm, ADN”: Fareed Zakaria, “There Is a Silver Lining,” Newsweek, October 11, 2008.

32. Vincent Kaminski: Steven Pearlstein, “The Art of Managing Risk,” The Washington Post, November 8, 2007. See also Alexei Barrionuevo, “Vincent Kaminski: Sounding the Alarm But Unable to Prevail,” in “10 Enron Players: Where They Landed After the Fall,” The New York Times, January 29, 2006. And see Kurt Eichenwald, Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story (New York: Broadway, 2005), 250.

33.. Hãy thử tưởng tượng bạn được mời tới phòng thí nghiệm của Newman: C. M. Patterson and Joseph Newman, “Reflectivity and Learning from Aversive Events: Toward a Psychological Mechanism for the Syndromes of Disinhibition,” Psychological Review 100 (1993): 716–36. Carriers of the s-variant of the 5HTTLPR polymorphism (which is associated with introversion and sensitivity) have also been show to be faster to learn to avoid penalizing stimuli in passive avoidance tasks. See E. C. Finger et al., “The Impact of Tryptophan Depletion and 5-HTTLPR Genotype on Passive Avoidance and Response Reversal Instrumental Learning Tasks,” Neuropsychopharmacology 32 (2007): 206–15.

34. người hướng nội được “thiết kế ra để điều tra kỹ càng”: John Brebner and Chris Cooper, “Stimulus or Response-Induced Excitation: A Comparison of the Behavior of Introverts and Extroverts,” Journal of Research in Personality 12, no. 3 (1978): 306–11.

35. bạn càng dễ rút ra được bài học từ nó: Indeed, it’s been shown that one of the crucial ways that we learn is to analyze our mistakes. See Jonah Lehrer, How We Decide (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), 51.

36. Nếu bạn bắt ép những người hướng ngoại phải dừng lại để suy nghĩ … phản ứng thế nào với những dấu hiệu cảnh báo nguy hiểm tương tự trong tương lai: Interview with the author, November 13, 2008. Another way to understand why some people worry about risks and others ignore them is to go back to the idea of brain networks. In this chapter I focused on the dopamine- driven reward system and its role in delivering life’s goodies. But there’s a mirror-image brain network, often called the loss avoidance system, whose job is to call our attention to risk. If the reward network chases shiny fruit, the loss avoidance system worries about bad apples. The loss avoidance system, like the reward network, is a double-edged sword. It can make people anxious, unpleasantly anxious, so anxious that they sit out bull markets while everyone else gets rich. But it also causes them to take fewer stupid risks. This system is mediated in part by a neurotransmitter called serotonin—and when people are given drugs like Prozac (known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) that affect the loss avoidance system, they become more blasé about danger. They also become more gregarious. These features coincide uncannily, points out the neurofinance expert Dr. Richard Peterson, with the behavior of irrationally exuberant investors. “The characteristics of decreased threat perception and increased social affiliation [resulting from drugs like Prozac] mirror the decreased risk perception and herding of excessively bullish investors,” he writes. “It is as if bubble investors are experiencing a partial deactivation of their brains’ loss avoidance systems.”

37. mức độ thể hiện của người hướng nội và hướng ngoại trong những thao tác giải quyết vấn đề phức tạp: Dalip Kumar and Asha Kapila, “Problem Solving as a Function of Extraversion and Masculinity,” Personality and Individual Differences 8, no. 1 (1987): 129–32.

38. Người hướng ngoại có điểm số cao hơn: Adrian Furnham et al., “Personality, Cognitive Ability, and Beliefs About Intelligence as Predictors of Academic Performance,” Learning and Individual Differences 14 (2003): 49–66. See also Isabel Briggs Myers and Mary H. McCaulley, MBTI Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1985), 116; see also the Myers 1980 study referred to in Allan B. Hill,

“Developmental Student Achievement: The Personality Factor,” Journal of Psychological Type 9, no. 6 (2006): 79–87.

39. Một nghiên cứu trên 141 sinh viên đại học: Eric Rolfhus and Philip Ackerman, “Assessing Individual Differences in Knowledge: Knowledge, Intelligence, and Related Traits,” Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 3 (1999): 511–26.

40.. Người hướng nội nhận được một số lượng bằng tốt nghiệp, vị trí dẫn đầu của học bổng National Merit Scholarship, chìa khóa Phi Beta Kappa lớn hơn gấp nhiều lần so với người hướng ngoại:

G. P. Macdaid, M. H. McCaulley, and R. I. Kainz,Atlas of Type Tables (Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, 1986), pp. 483–85. See also Hill, “Developmental Student Achievement.”

41. Họ vượt mặt người hướng ngoại trong bài kiểm tra về Đánh Giá Khả Năng Tư Duy Suy Xét Watson-Glaser: Joanna Moutafi, Adrian Furnham, and John Crump, “Demographic and Personality Predictors of Intelligence: A Study Using the NEO Personality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator,” European Journal of Personality 17, no. 1 (2003): 79–84.

42. Người hướng nội không thông minh hơn người hướng ngoại: Author interview with Gerald Matthews, November 24, 2008. See also D. H. Saklofske and D. D. Kostura, “Extraversion-Introversion and Intelligence,”Personality and Individual Differences 11, no. 6 (1990): 547–51.

43. đặc biệt là các công việc cần phải thực hiện dưới áp lực thời gian hoặc xã hội hay phải làm nhiều việc cùng lúc: Gerald Matthews and Lisa Dorn, “Cognitive and Attentional Processes in Personality and Intelligence,” in International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, edited by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeidner (New York: Plenum Press, 1995), 367–96. See also Gerald Matthews et al., Personality Traits (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), ch. 12.

44. tập trung sự chú tâm của mình theo những cách khác nhau … tự hỏi “what if”: Debra L. Johnson et al., “Cerebral Blood Flow and Personality: A Positron Emission Tomography Study,” The American Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1999): 252–57. See also Lee Tilford Davis and Peder E. Johnson, “An Assessment of Conscious Content as Related to Introversion-Extroversion,” Imagination, Cognition and Personality 3, no. 2 (1983).

45. một trò chơi xếp hình rất khó: Colin Cooper and Richard Taylor, “Personality and Performance on a Frustrating Cognitive Task,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 88, no. 3 (1999): 1384.

46. một loạt các mê cung in trên giấy: Rick Howard and Maeve McKillen, “Extraversion and Performance in the Perceptual Maze Test,” Personality and Individual Differences 11, no. 4 (1990): 391–96. See also John Weinman, “Noncognitive Determinants of Perceptual Problem-Solving Strategies,”Personality and Individual Differences 8, no. 1 (1987): 53–58.

47. Raven Standard Progressive Matrices: Vidhu Mohan and Dalip Kumar, “Qualitative Analysis of the Performance of Introverts and Extroverts on Standard Progressive Matrices,” British Journal of Psychology 67, no. 3 (1976): 391–97.

48. những đặc điểm tính cách của các nhân viên một tổng đài điện thoại: Interview with the author, February 13, 2007.

49. nếu bạn đang tuyển mộ nhân viên cho một ngân hàng đầu tư: Interview with the author, July 7, 2010.

50. những người đàn ông khi được cho xem những bức hình khiêu gợi: Camelia Kuhnen et al., “Nucleus Accumbens Activation Mediates the Influence of Reward Cues on Financial Risk Taking,” NeuroReport 19, no. 5 (2008): 509–13.

51. mọi người hướng ngoại đều luôn … luôn cảnh giác trước những hiểm họa: Indeed, many contemporary personality psychologists would say that threat-vigilance is more characteristic of a trait known as “neuroticism” than of introversion per se.

52. sự cảnh-giác-trước-nguy-hiểm có vẻ là một đặc điểm của một nét tính cách khác: But harm avoidance is correlated with both introversion and neuroticism (both traits are associated with Jerry Kagan’s “high reactivity” and Elaine Aron’s “high sensitivity”). See Mary E. Stewart et al., “Personality Correlates of Happiness and Sadness: EPQ-R and TPQ Compared,” Personality and Individual Differences 38, no. 5 (2005): 1085–96.

53. “Nếu bạn muốn xác định xem”: can be found athttp://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/ccarver/sclBISBAS.html. I first came across this scale in Jonathan Haidt’s excellent book, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 34.

54. “cảm thấy độc lập với môi trường xã hội”: Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990), 16.

55. “Các lý thuyết tâm lý học thường mặc định rằng”: Mihalyi Csikszentmilhalyi, The Evolving Self: A Psychology for the Third Millennium (New York: Harper Perennial, 1994), xii.

56. bạn có thể sẽ thấy rằng năng lượng của bạn dường như là vô tận: The same goes for happiness. Research suggests that buzz and other positive emotions seem to come a little easier to extroverts, and that extroverts as a group are happier. But when psychologists compare happy extroverts with happy introverts, they find that the two groups share many of the same characteristics—self-esteem; freedom from anxiety; satisfaction with their life work—and that those features predict happiness more strongly than extroversion itself does. See Peter Hills and Michael Argyle, “Happiness, Introversion-Extraversion and Happy Introverts,” Personality and Individual Differences 30 (2001): 595–608.

57. “Giải Phóng Người Hướng Ngoại Bên Trong Bạn”: BusinessWeek online column, November 26, 2008.

58. Chuck Prince: For an account of Chuck Prince’s persona, see, for example, Mara Der Hovanesian, “Rewiring Chuck Prince,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, February 20, 2006.

59. Seth Klarman: For information on Klarman, see, for example, Charles Klein, “Klarman Tops Griffin as Investors Hunt for ‘Margin of Safety,’ ” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, June 11, 2010. See also Geraldine Fabrikant, “Manager Frets Over Market but Still Outdoes It,” New York Times, May 13, 2007.

60. Michael Lewis: Michael Lewis, The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010).

61. Warren Buffett: Warren Buffett’s story, as related in this chapter, comes from an excellent biography: Alice Schroeder, The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life (New York: Bantam Books, 2008).

62. “thẻ ghi điểm”: Some psychologists would relate Warren Buffett’s self-direction not necessarily to introversion but to a different phenomenon called “internal locus of control.”

1. Mike Wei: The interviews with Mike Wei and others from Cupertino, related throughout this chapter, were conducted with the author at various stages between 2006 and 2010.

2., theo một bài báo có tên “The New White Flight”: Suein Hwang, “The New White Flight,” Wall Street Journal, November 19, 2005.

3. 53 người đã được lọt vào danh sách vòng bán kết để nhận học bổng National Merit Scholarship

… cao hơn mức trung bình trên toàn nước Mỹ tới 27 phần trăm.: Monta Vista High School website, as of May 31, 2010.

4. Nói chuyện đơn giản không phải là một trọng tâm: Richard C. Levin, “Top of the Class: The Rise of Asia’s Universities,”Foreign Affairs, May/June 2010.

5. tờ San Jose Mercury News cho đăng một bài báo: Sarah Lubman, “East West Teaching Traditions Collide,”San Jose Mercury News, February 23, 1998.

6. “các trường đại học nên học cách lắng nghe âm thanh của sự tĩnh lặng”: Heejung Kim, “We Talk, Therefore We Think? A Cultural Analysis of the Effect of Talking on Thinking,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 4 (2002): 828–42.

7. Tờ The Journal of Research in Personality đã đăng: Robert R. McCrae, “Human Nature and Culture: A Trait Perspective,” Journal of Research in Personality 38 (2004): 3–14.

8. Cư dân Mỹ là một phần trong số những người hướng ngoại nhất trên thế giới này.: See, for example, David G. Winter, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 459.

9. một nghiên cứu so sánh các trẻ em từ tám tới mười tuổi: Xinyin Chen et al., “Social Reputation and Peer Relationships in Chinese and Canadian Children: A Cross-Cultural Study,” Child Development 63, no. 6 (1992): 1336–43. See also W. Ray Crozier, Shyness: Development, Consolidation and Change(Routledge, 2001), 147.

10. học sinh phổ thông ở Trung Quốc nói lại với các nhà nghiên cứu: Michael Harris Bond, Beyond the Chinese Face: Insights from Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 62.

11. Một nghiên cứu khác yêu cầu những người Mỹ gốc Á và người Mỹ gốc Âu: Kim, “We Talk, Therefore We Think?”

12. thái độ của người châu Á trước việc nói: See, for example, Heejung Kim and Hazel Markus, “Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Silence: An Analysis of Talking as a Cultural Practice,” in Engaging Cultural Differences in Liberal Democracies, edited by Richard K. Shweder et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 432–52.

13. những câu tục ngữ đến từ phương Đông: Some of these come from the epigraph of the article by Heejung Kim and Hazel Markus, cited above.

14. kỳ thi jinshi (進士-tiến sĩ) của triều Minh: Nicholas Kristof, “The Model Students,” New York Times, May 14, 2006.

15. các tư thế thể hiện quyền thế: Jonathan Freeman et al., “Culture Shapes a Mesolimbic Response to Signals of Dominance and Subordination that Associates with Behavior,” NeuroImage 47 (2009): 353– 59.

16. “Chỉ có những người đến từ một truyền thống thẳng thắn”: Harris Bond, Beyond the Chinese Face, 53.

17. taijin kyofusho: Carl Elliott, Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 71.

18. các nhà tu hành Phật giáo ở Tây Tạng có thể tìm thấy sự an lành trong tâm trí: Marc Kaufman,

“Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds,” Washington Post, January 3, 2005.

19. “Sự lễ độ, phép lịch sự của họ từ lâu đã được biết đến”: Lydia Millet, “The Humblest of Victims,” New York Times, August 7, 2005.

20. phương Tây hóa: See, for example, Xinyin Chen et al., “Social Functioning and Adjustment in Chinese

Children: The Imprint of Historical Time,” Child Development76, no. 1 (2005): 182–95.

21. Một nghiên cứu so sánh những thiếu niên Mỹ gốc Âu và các thiếu niên Mỹ gốc Á: C. S. Huntsinger and P. E. Jose, “A Longitudinal Investigation of Personality and Social Adjustment Among Chinese American and European American Adolescents,” Child Development 77, no. 5 (2006): 1309–24. Indeed, the same thing seems to be happening to Chinese kids in China as the country Westernizes, according to a series of longitudinal studies measuring changes in social attitudes. While shyness was associated with social and academic achievement for elementary school children as recently as 1990, by 2002 it predicted peer rejection and even depression. See Chen, “Social Functioning and Adjustment in Chinese Children.”

22. Nhà báo Nicholas Lemann: “Jews in Second Place,” Slate, June 25, 1996.

23. “A … E … U … O … I”: These vowels were presented out of the usual sequence at Preston Ni’s seminar.

24. Gandhi, theo như cuốn tự truyện của ông: The story of Gandhi related in this chapter comes primarily from Gandhi: An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), esp. 6, 20, 40–41, 59, 60–62, 90–91.

25. Bài thi TIMSS: I originally learned about this from Malcom Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success(New York: Little Brown and Company, 2008).

26. Ví dụ, vào năm 1995, năm đầu tiên cuộc thi TIMSS được tổ chức: “Pursuing Excellence: A Study of

U.S. Eighth-Grade Mathematics and Science Teaching, Learning Curriculum, and Achievement in International Context, Initial Findings from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study,”

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Pursuing Excellence, NCES 97- 198 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996).

27. Vào năm 2007, khi các nhà nghiên cứu thống kê: TIMSS Executive Summary. The nations whose students fill out more of the questionnaire also tend to have students who do well on the TIMSS test: Erling E. Boe et al., “Student Task Persistence in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study: A Major Source of Achievement Differences at the National, Classroom and Student Levels” (Research Rep. No. 2002-TIMSS1) (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Center for Research and Evaluation in Social Policy). Note that this study was based on 1995 data.

28. nhà tâm lý học giao thoa văn hóa (cross-cultural psychologist) Priscilla Blinco: Priscilla Blinco, “Task Persistence in Japanese Elementary Schools,” in Windows on Japanese Education, edited by Edward R. Beauchamp (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991). Malcolm Gladwell wrote about this study in his book Outliers.

1. Hãy gặp giáo sư Brian Little: The stories about Brian Little throughout this chapter come from numerous telephone and e-mail interviews with the author between 2006 and 2010.

2. Hippocrates, Milton, Schopenhauer, Jung: Please see A Note on the Words Introvert and Extrovertfor more on this point.

3. Walter Mischel: For an overview of the person-situation debate, see, for example, David C. Funder,The Personality Puzzle (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 118–44. See also Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda,

“Reconciling Processing Dynamics and Personality Dispositions,” Annual Review of Psychology49 (1998): 229–58. In further support of the premise that there truly is such a thing as a fixed personality: We know now that people who score as introverts on personality tests tend to have different physiologies and probably inherit some different genes from those who measure as extroverts. We also know that personality traits predict an impressive variety of important life outcomes. If you’re an extrovert, you’re more likely to have a wide circle of friends, have risky sex, get into accidents, and excel at people-oriented work like sales, human resources, and teaching. (This doesn’t mean that you will do these things—only that you’re more likely than your typical introvert to do them.) If you’re an introvert, you’re more likely to excel in high school, in college, and in the land of advanced degrees, to have smaller social networks, to stay married to your original partner, and to pursue autonomous work like art, research, math, and engineering. Extroversion and introversion even predict the psychological challenges you might face: depression and anxiety for introverts (think Woody Allen); hostility, narcissism, and overconfidence for extroverts (think Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick, drunk with rage against a white whale). In addition, there are studies showing that the personality of a seventy-year-old can be predicted with remarkable accuracy from early adulthood on. In other words, despite the remarkable variety of situations that we experience in a lifetime, our core traits remain constant. It’s not that our personalities don’t evolve; Kagan’s research on the malleability of high-reactive people has singlehandedly disproved this notion. But we tend to stick to predictable patterns. If you were the tenth most introverted person in your high school class, your behavior may fluctuate over time, but you probably still find yourself ranked around tenth at your fiftieth reunion. At that class reunion, you’ll also notice that many of your classmates will be more introverted than you remember them being in high school: quieter, more self-contained, and less in need of excitement. Also more emotionally stable, agreeable, and conscientious. All of these traits grow more pronounced with age. Psychologists call this process “intrinsic maturation,” and they’ve found these same patterns of personality development in countries as diverse as Germany, the UK, Spain, the Czech Republic, and

Turkey. They’ve also found them in chimps and monkeys.

This makes evolutionary sense. High levels of extroversion probably help with mating, which is why most of us are at our most sociable during our teenage and young adult years. But when it comes to keeping marriages stable and raising children, having a restless desire to hit every party in town may

be less useful than the urge to stay home and love the one you’re with. Also, a certain degree of introspection may help us age with equanimity. If the task of the first half of life is to put yourself out there, the task of the second half is to make sense of where you’ve been.

4. cuộc sống giao tiếp xã hội là một màn trình diễn: See, for example, Carl Elliott, Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 47.

5. Jack Welch đã khuyên trong chuyên trang điện tử của tờ BusinessWeek: Jack Welch, “Release Your Inner Extrovert,” BusinessWeekonline, November 26, 2008.

6. Lý Thuyết Về Nét Tính Cách Tự Do (Free Trait Theory): For an overview of Free Trait Theory, see, for example, Brian R. Little, “Free Traits, Personal Projects, and Ideo-Tapes: Three Tiers for Personality Psychology,” Psychological Inquiry7, no. 4 (1996): 340–44.

7. “To thine own self be true” (be true to your own self—hãy sống thật với chính mình)”: Actually, this advice comes not so much from Shakespeare as from his character Polonius in Hamlet.

8. một nhà tâm lý học nghiên cứu (research psychologist) tên Richard Lippa: Richard Lippa, “Expressive Control, Expressive Consistency, and the Correspondence Between Expressive Behavior and Personality,” Journal of Behavior and Personality 36, no. 3 (1976): 438–61. Indeed, psychologists have found that some people who claim not to be shy in a written questionnaire are quite adept at concealing those aspects of shyness that they can control consciously, such as talking to members of the opposite sex and speaking for long periods of time. But they often “leak” their shyness unwittingly, with tense body postures and facial expressions.

9. các nhà tâm lý học gọi là “tự-giám-sát-bản-thân” (self-monitoring): Mark Snyder, “Self-Monitoring of Expressive Behavior,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30, no. 4 (1974): 526–37.

10. họ còn đồng thời ít căng thẳng hơn khi làm thế nữa.: Joyce E. Bono and Meredith A. Vey, “Personality and Emotional Performance: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Self-Monitoring,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology” 12, no. 2 (2007): 177–92.

11. “Điểm hồi phục” là từ ngữ giáo sư Little dùng: See, for example, Brian Little, “Free Traits and Personal Contexts: Expanding a Social Ecological Model of Well-Being,” in Person-Environment Psychology: New Directions and Perspectives, edited by W. Bruce Walsh et al. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000).

12. “một “Thỏa thuận Về Nét Tính Cách Tự Do” (“a Free Trait Agreement”)”: See, for example, Brian Little and Maryann F. Joseph, “Personal Projects and Free Traits: Mutable Selves and Well Beings,” in Personal Project Pursuit: Goals, Action, and Human Flourishing, edited by Brian R. Little et al. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007), 395.

13. “Lao động cảm xúc” (“emotional labor”)”: Howard S. Friedman, “The Role of Emotional Expression in Coronary Heart Disease,” in In Search of the Coronary-Prone: Beyond Type A, edited by A. W. Siegman et al. (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989), 149–68.

14. những người thường xuyên đè nén các cảm xúc tiêu cực: Melinda Wenner, “Smile! It Could Make You Happier: Making an Emotional Face—or Suppressing One—Influences Your Feelings,” Scientific American Mind, October 14, 2009, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=smile-it-could- make-you-happier.

1. những người mà đề cao nhất sự gần gũi: Randy J. Larsen and David M. Buss, Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005), 353.

2. “Những người hướng ngoại cần đến người khác như một diễn đàn”: E-mail from William Graziano to the author, July 31, 2010.

3. Trong một nghiên cứu trên 132 sinh viên: Jens B. Aspendorf and Susanne Wilpers, “Personality Effects on Social Relationships,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 6 (1998): 1531–44.

4. nét tính cách Ngũ Đại (Big Five): Agreeableness is defined later in this chapter. “Openness to Experience” measures curiosity, openness to new ideas, and appreciation for art, invention, and unusual experiences; “Conscientious” people are disciplined, dutiful, efficient, and organized; “Emotional Stability” measures freedom from negative emotions.

5. đặt những người này trước một màn hình: Benjamin M. Wilkowski et al., “Agreeableness and the Prolonged Spatial Processing of Antisocial and Prosocial Information,” Journal of Research in Personality 40, no. 6 (2006): 1152–68. See also Daniel Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), chapter on agreeableness.

6. Cả người hướng nội lẫn người hướng ngoại đều có khả năng đạt được Mức Độ Dễ Chịu cao như

nhau: Under the “Big Five” definitions of personality, extroversion and agreeableness are by definition

orthogonal. See, for example, Colin G. DeYoung et al., “Testing Predictions from Personality Neuroscience: Brain Structure and the Big Five,” Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (2010): 820–28: “Agreeableness appears to identify the collection of traits related to altruism: one’s concern for the needs, desires, and rights of others (as opposed to one’s enjoyment of others, which appears to be related primarily to Extraversion).”

7. đối diện trực tiếp với nó: See, for example: (1) Donald A. Loffredo and Susan K. Opt, “Argumentation and Myers-Briggs Personality Type Preferences,” paper presented at the National Communication Association Convention, Atlanta, GA; (2) Rick Howard and Maeve McKillen, “Extraversion and Performance in the Perceptual Maze Test,” Personality and Individual Differences 11, no. 4 (1990): 391–96; (3) Robert L. Geist and David G. Gilbert, “Correlates of Expressed and Felt Emotion During Marital Conflict: Satisfaction, Personality, Process and Outcome,” Personality and Individual Differences 21, no. 1 (1996): 49–60; (4) E. Michael Nussbaum, “How Introverts Versus Extroverts Approach Small-Group Argumentative Discussions,” The Elementary School Journal 102, no. 3 (2002): 183–97.

8. Một nghiên cứu tuyệt vời tiến hành bởi nhà tâm lý học William Graziano: William Graziano et al., “Extraversion, Social Cognition, and the Salience of Aversiveness in Social Encounters,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, no. 4 (1985): 971–80.

9. robot được cho tương tác với những bệnh nhân đột quỵ: See Jerome Groopman, “Robots That Care,” The New Yorker, November 2, 2009. See also Adriana Tapus and Maja Mataric, “User Personality Matching with Hands-Off Robot for Post-Stroke Rehabilitation Therapy,” in Experimental Robotics, vol. 39 of Springer Tracts in Advance Robotics (Berlin: Springer, 2008), 165–75.

10. một nghiên cứu về kinh tế tại Đại học Michigan: Shirli Kopelman and Ashleigh Shelby Rosette, “Cultural Variation in Response to Strategic Emotions in Negotiations,” Group Decision and Negotiation17, no. 1 (2008): 65–77.

11. Trong cuốn sách của mình: “Giận Dữ: Thứ Cảm Xúc Bị Hiểu Nhầm”: Carol Tavris, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion (New York: Touchstone, 1982).

12. Nhưng “lý thuyết trút bỏ” chỉ đơn giản là một myth: Russell Geen et al., “The Facilitation of Aggression by Aggression: Evidence against the Catharsis Hypothesis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 4 (1975): 721–26. See also Tavris, Anger.

13. những người sử dụng chất Botox: Carl Zimmer, “Why Darwin Would Have Loved Botox,” Discover, October 15, 2009. See also Joshua Ian Davis et al., “The Effects of BOTOX Injections on Emotional Experience,”Emotion 10, no. 3 (2010): 433–40.

14. ba mươi hai cặp người hướng nội và người hướng ngoại: Matthew D. Lieberman and Robert Rosenthal, “Why Introverts Can’t Always Tell Who Likes Them: Multitasking and Nonverbal Decoding,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80, no. 2 (2006): 294–310.

15. Nó yêu cầu một dạng multitask trong não bộ: Gerald Matthews and Lisa Dorn, “Cognitive and Attentional Processes in Personality and Intelligence,” in International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, edited by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeidner (New York: Plenum, 1995), 367–96.

16. giải nghĩa những gì người kia đang nói: Lieberman and Rosenthal, “Why Introverts Can’t Always Tell Who Likes Them.”

17. thí nghiệm bởi nhà tâm lý học phát triển (developmental psychologist) Avril Thorne: Avril Thorne, “The Press of Personality: A Study of Conversations Between Introverts and Extraverts,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53, no. 4 (1987): 718–26.

Some of the advice in this chapter is based on interviews I conducted with many caring teachers, school administrators, and child psychologists, and on the following wonderful books:

Elaine Aron, The Highly Sensitive Child: Helping Our Children Thrive When the World Overwhelms Them (New York: Broadway Books), 2002.

Bernardo J. Carducci, Shyness: A Bold New Approach (New York: Harper Paperbacks, 2000).

Natalie Madorsky Elman and Eileen Kennedy-Moore, The Unwritten Rules of Friendship (Boston: Little Brown, 2003).

Jerome Kagan and Nancy Snidman, The Long Shadow of Temperament (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

Barbara G. Markway and Gregory P. Markway, Nurturing the Shy Child (New York: St.

Martin’s Press, 2005).

Kenneth H. Rubin, The Friendship Factor (New York: Penguin, 2002).

Ward K. Swallow, The Shy Child: Helping Children Triumph Over Shyness (New York: Time Warner, 2000).

1. Mark Twain đã từng kể câu chuyện: This comes from Donald Mackinnon, who believed (but was not 100 percent certain) that Mark Twain told this story. See Donald W. MacKinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent,” (Walter Van Dyke Bingham Lecture given at Yale University, New Haven, CT, April 11, 1962).

2. câu chuyện cảnh báo … tiến sĩ Jerry Miller: I conducted several in-person and e-mail interviews with Dr. Miller between 2006 and 2010.

3. Emily Miller: I conducted several interviews with Emily Miller between 2006 and 2010.

4. Elaine Aron: Elaine N. Aron, Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person (New York: Routledge, 2010), 18–19.

5. tiến sĩ Jerry Miller: Rubin, The Friendship Factor.

6. “người học tiếp nhận được rất ít”: Jill D. Burruss and Lisa Kaenzig, “Introversion: The Often Forgotten

Factor Impacting the Gifted,” Virginia Association for the Gifted Newsletter 21, no. 1 (1999).

7. Các chuyên gia tin rằng những trải nghiệm tiêu cực về nói trước đám đông: Gregory Berns, Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2008), 77.

8. Người hướng ngoại thích được chuyển động, những kích thích, và các công việc hoạt động nhóm: Isabel Myers et al., MBTI Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 3rd ed., 2nd printing (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1998), 261–62. See also Allen L. Hammer, ed., MBTI Applications: A Decade of Research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996).

9. điều kiện tiên quyết cho sự phát triển tài năng: See chapter 3, especially on the work of Anders Ericsson.

10. “họ thường hết sức thoải mái nói chuyện với một hoặc hai người bạn”: E-mail from Roger Johnson to the author, June 14, 2010.

11. Don’t seat quiet kids in “high interaction” areas: James McCroskey, “Quiet Children in the Classroom: On Helping Not Hurting,” Communication Education 29 (1980).

12. nhưng nổi tiếng thì không hẳn là cần thiết: Rubin, The Friendship Factor: “Research findings do not suggest that popularity is the golden route to all manner of good things. There simply is not much evidence that it guarantees social or academic success in adolescence, young adulthood, or later life.… If your child finds one other child to befriend, and the pair clearly have fun together and enjoy each other’s company and are supportive companions, good for him. Stop worrying. Not every child needs to be part of a big, happy gang. Not every child needs many friends; for some, one or two will do.”

13. tham gia sâu sắc và trung thành với một hoạt động nào đấy: I. McGregor and Brian Little, “Personal Projects, Happiness, and Meaning: On Doing Well and Being Yourself,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 2 (1998): 494–512.

14. nhà tâm lý học Dan McAdams: Jack J. Bauer, Dan P. McAdams, and Jennifer L. Pals, “Narrative Identity

and Eudaimonic Well-Being,” Journal of Happiness Studies 9 (2008): 81–104.

1. nhà nhân chủng học C. A. Valentine: C. A. Valentine, “Men of Anger and Men of Shame: Lakalai Ethnopsychology and Its Implications for Sociological Theory,” Ethnology no. 2 (1963): 441–77. I first learned about this article from David Winter’s excellent textbook, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996).

2. Aristotle: Aristoteles, Problematica Physica XXX, 1 (Bekker 953A 10 ff.), as translated in Jonathan Barnes, The Complete Works of Aristotle, the Revised Oxford Translation II (Princeton, N.J.: Bollingen, 1984).

3. John Milton: Cited in David G. Winter, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 380–84.

4. Schopenhauer: Arthur Schopenhauer, “Personality, or What a Man Is,” in The Wisdom of Life and Other Essays (New York and London: Dunne, 1901), 12–35 (original work published 1851); cited in Winter, Personality, 384–86.